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Combat properties and damaging factors of nuclear weapons. Types of nuclear explosions and their differences in external features

Depending on the tasks solved by nuclear weapons, on the type and location of the objects at which nuclear explosions are planned, as well as on the nature of the upcoming hostilities, nuclear explosions can be carried out in the air, near the surface of the earth (water) and underground (water). In accordance with this, the following types of nuclear explosions are distinguished: airborne, high-altitude (in rarefied layers of the atmosphere), ground-based (above-water), underground (underwater).

A nuclear explosion can instantly destroy or incapacitate unprotected people, openly worthwhile equipment, structures and various materials. The main damaging factors of a nuclear explosion (NFE) are:

· shock wave;

· light radiation;

· penetrating radiation;

· radioactive contamination of the area;

· electromagnetic pulse (EMP).

During a nuclear explosion in the atmosphere, the distribution of released energy between PFYVs is approximately the following: about 50% for the shock wave, 35% for light radiation, 10% for radioactive contamination and 5% for penetrating radiation and EMR.

Shock wave. The shock wave in most cases is the main damaging factor of a nuclear explosion. By its nature, it is similar to the shock wave of a completely ordinary explosion, but it acts more long time and has much more destructive force. The shock wave of a nuclear explosion can injure people, destroy structures and damage military equipment at a considerable distance from the center of the explosion.

A shock wave is an area of strong air compression that propagates at high speed in all directions from the center of the explosion. Its propagation speed depends on the air pressure at the front of the shock wave; near the center of the explosion it is several times higher than the speed of sound, but with increasing distance from the explosion site it drops sharply. In the first 2 s the shock wave travels about 1000 m, in 5 s – 2000 m, in 8 s – about 3000 m.

The damaging effects of a shock wave on people and the destructive effect on military equipment, engineering structures and materiel are, first of all, determined by excess pressure and the speed of air movement in its front. Unprotected people can, in addition, be affected by shards of glass flying at great speed and fragments of destroyed buildings, falling trees, as well as scattered parts of military equipment, clods of earth, stones and other objects set in motion by the high-speed pressure of the shock wave. The greatest indirect damage will be observed in populated areas and forests; in these cases, population losses may be greater than from the direct effect of the shock wave. Damages caused by a shock wave are divided into light, medium, severe and extremely severe.

Mild lesions occur at excess pressure of 20-40 kPa (0.2-0.4 kgf/cm2) and are characterized by temporary damage to the hearing organs, general mild contusion, bruises and dislocations of the limbs. Medium lesions occur at excess pressure of 40-60 kPa (0.4-0.6 kgf/cm2). This may result in dislocation of the limbs, contusion of the brain, damage to the hearing organs, and bleeding from the nose and ears. Severe injuries are possible with excess shock wave pressure of 60-100 kPa (0.6-1.0 kgf/cm2) and are characterized by severe contusion of the whole body; In this case, damage to the brain and abdominal organs, severe bleeding from the nose and ears, severe fractures and dislocations of the limbs may occur. Extremely severe injuries can lead to death if excess pressure exceeds 100 kPa (1.0 kgf/cm2).

The degree of damage from a shock wave depends, first of all, on the power and type of nuclear explosion. In an air explosion with a power of 20 kt, light injuries to people are possible at distances of up to 2.5 km, medium - up to 2 km, severe - up to 1.5 km, extremely severe - up to 1.0 km from the epicenter of the explosion. As the caliber of a nuclear weapon increases, the radius of shock wave damage increases in proportion to the cube root of the explosion power.

Guaranteed protection of people from the shock wave is provided by sheltering them in shelters. In the absence of shelters, natural shelters and terrain are used.

During an underground explosion, a shock wave occurs in the ground, and during an underwater explosion, it occurs in water. The shock wave, propagating in the ground, causes damage to underground structures, sewers, and water pipes; when it spreads in water, damage to the underwater parts of ships located even at a considerable distance from the explosion site is observed.

In relation to civil and industrial buildings, the degrees of destruction are characterized by weak, medium, severe and complete destruction.

Weak destruction is accompanied by the destruction of window and door fillings and light partitions, the roof is partially destroyed, and cracks are possible in the walls of the upper floors. The basements and lower floors are completely preserved.

Moderate destruction manifests itself in the destruction of roofs, internal partitions, windows, collapse of attic floors, and cracks in walls. Restoration of buildings is possible during major repairs.

Severe destruction is characterized by the destruction of load-bearing structures and ceilings of the upper floors, and the appearance of cracks in the walls. The use of buildings becomes impossible. Repair and restoration of buildings becomes impractical.

In case of complete destruction, all the main elements of the building collapse, including supporting structures. It is impossible to use such buildings, and so that they do not pose a danger, they are completely collapsed.

Light radiation. The light emitted from a nuclear explosion is a stream of radiant energy, including ultraviolet, visible and infrared radiation. The source of light radiation is a luminous area consisting of hot explosion products and hot air. The brightness of light radiation in the first second is several times greater than the brightness of the Sun. Maximum temperature The luminous region is in the range of 8000-10000 C 0.

The damaging effect of light radiation is characterized by a light pulse. The light pulse is the ratio of the amount of light energy to the area of the illuminated surface located perpendicular to the propagation of light rays. The unit of light impulse is joule per square meter (J/m2) or calorie per square centimeter (cal/cm2).

The absorbed energy of light radiation turns into heat, which leads to heating of the surface layer of the material. The heat can be so intense that it can char or ignite combustible material and crack or melt non-combustible material, which can lead to huge fires. In this case, the effect of light radiation from a nuclear explosion is equivalent to the massive use of incendiary weapons.

The human skin also absorbs the energy of light radiation, due to which it can heat up to a high temperature and receive burns. Burns primarily occur on open areas bodies facing the direction of the explosion. If you look in the direction of the explosion with unprotected eyes, eye damage may occur, leading to complete loss of vision.

Burns caused by light radiation are no different from burns caused by fire or boiling water. They are stronger the shorter the distance to the explosion and the greater the power of the ammunition. In an air explosion, the damaging effect of light radiation is greater than in a ground explosion of the same power. Depending on the perceived magnitude of the light pulse, burns are divided into three degrees.

First-degree burns occur with a light pulse of 2-4 cal/cm 2 and manifest themselves in superficial skin lesions: redness, swelling, pain. In case of second degree burns, with a light pulse of 4-10 cal/cm2, blisters appear on the skin. In case of third degree burns with a light pulse of 10-15 cal/cm2, skin necrosis and the formation of ulcers are observed.

With an air explosion of ammunition with a power of 20 kt and an atmospheric transparency of about 25 km, first-degree burns will be observed within a radius of 4.2 km from the center of the explosion; with the explosion of a charge with a power of 1 Mt, this distance will increase to 22.4 km. Second degree burns appear at distances of 2.9 and 14.4 km and third degree burns at distances of 2.4 and 12.8 km, respectively, for 20 kt and 1 Mt ammunition

Protection from light radiation can be various items, creating a shadow, but top scores achieved by using shelters and shelters.

Penetrating radiation. Penetrating radiation is a stream of gamma quanta and neutrons emitted from the zone of a nuclear explosion. Gamma quanta and neutrons spread in all directions from the center of the explosion.

As the distance from the explosion increases, the number of gamma quanta and neutrons passing through a unit surface decreases. During underground and underwater nuclear explosions, the effect of penetrating radiation extends over distances much shorter than during ground and air explosions, which is explained by the absorption of the flux of neutrons and gamma quanta by earth and water.

The zones affected by penetrating radiation during explosions of medium- and high-power nuclear weapons are somewhat smaller than the zones affected by shock waves and light radiation.

For ammunition with small TNT equivalent(1000 tons or less), on the contrary, the zones of damage caused by penetrating radiation exceed the zones affected by shock waves and light radiation.

The damaging effect of penetrating radiation is determined by the ability of gamma rays and neutrons to ionize the atoms of the medium in which they propagate. Passing through living tissue, gamma rays and neutrons ionize atoms and molecules that make up the cells, which lead to disruption of the vital functions of individual organs and systems. Under the influence of ionization, biological processes of cell death and decomposition occur in the body. As a result, affected people develop a specific disease called radiation sickness (see below for more details). teaching aid“Radiation safety: nature and sources of ionizing radiation”).

To assess the ionization of atoms in the environment, and, consequently, the damaging effect of penetrating radiation on a living organism, the concept of radiation dose (or radiation dose) was introduced, the unit of measurement of which is the x-ray (R). The 1P radiation dose corresponds to the formation of approximately 2 billion ion pairs in one cubic centimeter of air.

Protection against penetrating radiation is provided by various materials that weaken the flow of gamma and neutron radiation. The degree of attenuation of penetrating radiation depends on the properties of the materials and the thickness of the protective layer. The attenuation of gamma and neutron radiation intensity is characterized by a half-attenuation layer, which depends on the density of the materials. A half-attenuation layer is a layer of material through which the intensity of gamma rays or neutrons is halved.

Radioactive contamination. Radioactive contamination of people, military equipment, terrain and various objects during a nuclear explosion is caused by fission fragments of the charge substance (Pu-239, U-235, U-238) and the unreacted part of the charge falling out of the explosion cloud, as well as induced radioactivity. Over time, the activity of fission fragments decreases rapidly, especially in the first hours after the explosion. For example, the total activity of fission fragments in the explosion of a nuclear weapon with a yield of 20 kt after one day will be several thousand times less than one minute after the explosion.

When a nuclear weapon explodes, part of the charge substance does not undergo fission, but falls out in its usual form; its decay is accompanied by the formation of alpha particles. Induced radioactivity is caused by radioactive isotopes (radionuclides) formed in the soil as a result of irradiation with neutrons emitted at the moment of explosion by the nuclei of atoms of chemical elements that make up the soil. The resulting isotopes, as a rule, are beta-active, and the decay of many of them is accompanied by gamma radiation. The half-lives of most of the resulting radioactive isotopes are relatively short - from one minute to an hour. In this regard, induced activity can pose a danger only in the first hours after the explosion and only in the area close to the epicenter.

The bulk of long-lived isotopes are concentrated in the radioactive cloud that forms after the explosion. The height of the cloud rise for a 10 kt munition is 6 km, for a 10 Mt munition it is 25 km. As the cloud moves, first the largest particles fall out of it, and then smaller and smaller ones, forming a zone along the path of movement radioactive contamination, the so-called cloud trail. The size of the trace depends mainly on the power of the nuclear weapon, as well as on wind speed, and can reach several hundred kilometers in length and several tens of kilometers in width.

The degree of radioactive contamination of an area is characterized by the level of radiation for a certain time after the explosion. The radiation level is the exposure dose rate (R/h) at a height of 0.7-1 m above the contaminated surface.

The emerging zones of radioactive contamination according to the degree of danger are usually divided into the following four zones.

Zone G is an extremely dangerous area for infection. Its area is 2-3% of the area of the explosion cloud trace. The radiation level is 800 R/h.

Zone B - dangerous contamination. It occupies approximately 8-10% of the explosion cloud footprint; radiation level 240 R/h.

Zone B is highly contaminated, accounting for approximately 10% of the area of the radioactive trace, the radiation level is 80 R/h.

Zone A - moderate contamination with an area of 70-80% of the area of the entire explosion trace. The radiation level at the outer border of the zone 1 hour after the explosion is 8 R/h.

Injuries resulting from internal radiation occur due to the entry of radioactive substances into the body through the respiratory system and gastrointestinal tract. In this case, radioactive radiation comes into direct contact with internal organs and can cause severe radiation sickness; the nature of the disease will depend on the amount of radioactive substances entering the body.

Radioactive substances do not have any harmful effects on weapons, military equipment and engineering structures.

Electromagnetic pulse. Nuclear explosions in the atmosphere and in higher layers lead to the emergence of powerful electromagnetic fields. Due to their short-term existence, these fields are usually called an electromagnetic pulse (EMP).

The damaging effect of EMR is caused by the occurrence of voltages and currents in conductors of various lengths located in the air, equipment, on the ground or on other objects. The effect of EMR manifests itself, first of all, in relation to radio-electronic equipment, where, under the influence of EMR, electric currents and voltages are induced, which can cause breakdown of electrical insulation, damage to transformers, burnout of spark gaps, damage to semiconductor devices and other elements of radio engineering devices. Communication, signaling and control lines are most susceptible to EMR. Strong electromagnetic fields may damage electrical circuits and interfere with the operation of unshielded electrical equipment.

A high-altitude explosion can interfere with communications over very large areas. Protection against EMI is achieved by shielding power supply lines and equipment.

Hearth nuclear destruction. The source of nuclear damage is the territory in which, under the influence of the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion, destruction of buildings and structures, fires, radioactive contamination of the area and damage to the population occur. The simultaneous impact of a shock wave, light radiation and penetrating radiation largely determines the combined nature of the damaging effect of a nuclear weapon explosion on people, military equipment and buildings. In case of combined damage to people, injuries and contusions from the impact of a shock wave can be combined with burns from light radiation with simultaneous fire from light radiation. Electronic equipment and devices, in addition, may lose their functionality as a result of exposure to an electromagnetic pulse (EMP).

The more powerful the nuclear explosion, the larger the source size. The nature of the destruction in the outbreak also depends on the strength of the structures of buildings and structures, their number of storeys and building density.

The outer boundary of the source of nuclear damage is taken to be a conventional line on the ground drawn at a distance from the epicenter of the explosion where the excess pressure of the shock wave is 10 kPa.

The damaging factors of nuclear weapons include:

shock wave;

light radiation;

penetrating radiation;

radioactive contamination;

electromagnetic pulse.

During an explosion in the atmosphere, approximately 50% of the explosion energy is spent on the formation of a shock wave, 30-40% on light radiation, up to 5% on penetrating radiation and electromagnetic pulse, and up to 15% on radioactive contamination. The effect of the damaging factors of a nuclear explosion on people and elements of objects does not occur simultaneously and differs in the duration of the impact, nature and scale.

Shock wave. A shock wave is an area of sharp compression of the medium, which propagates in the form of a spherical layer in all directions from the explosion site at supersonic speed. Depending on the propagation medium, a shock wave is distinguished in air, water or soil.

A shock wave in the air is formed due to the colossal energy released in the reaction zone, where the temperature is extremely high and the pressure reaches billions of atmospheres (up to 105 billion Pa). Hot vapors and gases, trying to expand, produce a sharp blow to the surrounding layers of air, compress them to high pressure and density and heat them to a high temperature. These layers of air set the subsequent layers in motion.

Thus, compression and movement of air occurs from one layer to another in all directions from the center of the explosion, forming an air shock wave. Near the center of the explosion, the speed of propagation of the shock wave is several times higher than the speed of sound in air.

As the distance from the explosion increases, the speed of wave propagation quickly decreases and the shock wave weakens. An air shock wave during a nuclear explosion of average power travels approximately 1000 meters in 1.4 seconds, 2000 meters in 4 seconds, 3000 meters in 7 seconds, 5000 meters in 12 seconds.

nuclear weapon ammunition explosion

The main parameters of the shock wave, characterizing its destructive and damaging effect: excess pressure in the front of the shock wave, the pressure of the velocity head, the duration of the wave - the duration of the compression phase and the speed of the shock wave front.

The shock wave in water during an underwater nuclear explosion is qualitatively similar to the shock wave in the air. However, at the same distances, the pressure in the shock wave front in water is much greater than in air, and the action time is shorter.

When a nuclear weapon explodes in the ground, the main part of the explosion energy is transferred to the surrounding mass of soil and produces a powerful shaking of the ground, reminiscent of an earthquake in its effect.

Mechanical impact of a shock wave. The nature of the destruction of the elements of an object (object) depends on the load created by the shock wave and the reaction of the object to the action of this load. Overall rating destruction caused by the shock wave of a nuclear explosion is usually given according to the severity of this destruction.

1) Weak destruction. Window and door fillings and light partitions are destroyed, the roof is partially destroyed, and cracks in the glass of the upper floors are possible. The basements and lower floors are completely preserved. It is safe to stay in the building and it can be used after routine repairs.
2) Moderate destruction is manifested in the destruction of roofs and built-in elements - internal partitions, windows, as well as the occurrence of cracks in the walls, the collapse of individual sections of attic floors and walls of the upper floors. The basements are preserved. After clearing and repairs, part of the premises on the lower floors can be used. Restoration of buildings is possible during major repairs.
3) Severe destruction is characterized by the destruction of load-bearing structures and floors of the upper floors, the formation of cracks in the walls and deformation of the floors of the lower floors. The use of premises becomes impossible, and repair and restoration are most often impractical.
4) Complete destruction. All the main elements of the building are destroyed, including supporting structures. The building cannot be used. In case of severe and complete destruction, basements can be preserved and partially used after the rubble is cleared.

Impact of shock waves on people and animals. The shock wave can cause traumatic injuries, concussions or death to unprotected people and animals.

Damages can be direct (as a result of exposure to excess pressure and high-speed air pressure) or indirect (as a result of impacts from debris of destroyed buildings and structures). The impact of air blast on unprotected people is characterized by mild, moderate, severe and extremely severe injuries.

1) Extremely severe contusions and injuries occur when excess pressure exceeds 100 kPa. There are ruptures of internal organs, broken bones, internal bleeding, concussion, and prolonged loss of consciousness. These injuries can be fatal.
2) Severe contusions and injuries are possible at excess pressures from 60 to 100 kPa. They are characterized by severe contusion of the entire body, loss of consciousness, bone fractures, bleeding from the nose and ears; Damage to internal organs and internal bleeding are possible.
3) Moderate lesions occur at excess pressure of 40-60 kPa. This may result in dislocation of limbs, contusion of the brain, damage to the hearing organs, bleeding from the nose and ears.
4) Light damage occurs at an excess pressure of 20-40 kPa. They are expressed in quickly passing disturbances in body functions (ringing in the ears, dizziness, headache). Dislocations and bruises are possible.

Guaranteed protection of people from the shock wave is provided by sheltering them in shelters. In the absence of shelters, anti-radiation shelters, underground workings, natural shelters and terrain are used.

Light radiation. The light radiation of a nuclear explosion is a combination of visible light and ultraviolet and infrared rays close to it in the spectrum. The source of light radiation is the luminous area of the explosion, consisting of substances of nuclear weapons, air and soil heated to a high temperature (in a ground explosion).

The temperature of the luminous area for some time is comparable to the temperature of the surface of the sun (maximum 8000-100000C and minimum 18000C). The size of the luminous area and its temperature change rapidly over time. The duration of light radiation depends on the power and type of explosion and can last up to tens of seconds. The damaging effect of light radiation is characterized by a light pulse. The light pulse is the ratio of the amount of light energy to the area of the illuminated surface located perpendicular to the propagation of light rays.

In a nuclear explosion high altitude X-rays emitted exclusively by highly heated explosion products are absorbed by large thicknesses of rarefied air. Therefore, the temperature of the fireball (much larger than in an air explosion) is lower.

The amount of light energy reaching an object located at a certain distance from a ground explosion can be for short distances on the order of three-quarters, and at large distances half the impulse of an air explosion of the same power.

With ground and surface explosions, the light pulse at the same distances is less than with air explosions of the same power.

During underground or underwater explosions, almost all light radiation is absorbed.

Fires at objects and in populated areas arise from light radiation and secondary factors caused by the impact of a shock wave. The presence of combustible materials has a great influence.

From the point of view of rescue operations, fires are classified into three zones: the zone of individual fires, the zone of continuous fires and the zone of burning and smoldering.

1) Zones of individual fires are areas in which fires occur in individual buildings and structures. The formation maneuver between individual fires is impossible without thermal protection equipment.
2) The zone of continuous fires is the territory in which the majority of surviving buildings are burning. It is impossible for formations to pass through this territory or remain there without means of protection from thermal radiation or carrying out special fire-fighting measures to localize or extinguish the fire.
3) The zone of burning and smoldering in the rubble is the territory in which destroyed buildings and structures are burning. It is characterized by prolonged burning in rubble (up to several days).

Impact of light radiation on people and animals. Light radiation from a nuclear explosion, when directly exposed, causes burns to exposed areas of the body, temporary blindness or retinal burns.

Burns are divided into four degrees according to the severity of damage to the body.

First degree burns cause pain, redness, and swelling of the skin. They do not pose a serious danger and are quickly cured without any consequences.

Second-degree burns cause blisters filled with a clear protein liquid; If large areas of skin are affected, a person may lose ability to work for some time and require special treatment.

Third degree burns are characterized by skin necrosis with partial damage to the germ layer.

Fourth degree burns: death of the skin of deeper layers of tissue. Third- and fourth-degree burns affecting a significant portion of the skin can be fatal.

Protection from light radiation is simpler than from other damaging factors. Light radiation travels in a straight line. Any opaque barrier can serve as protection against it. Using holes, ditches, mounds, embankments, walls between windows for shelter, different kinds equipment, tree crowns and the like, burns from light radiation can be significantly weakened or completely avoided. Shelters and radiation shelters provide complete protection. Clothing also protects the skin from burns, so burns are more likely to occur on exposed areas of the body.

The degree of burns from light radiation to covered areas of the skin depends on the nature of the clothing, its color, density and thickness (loose clothing in light colors or clothing made from woolen fabrics is preferred).

Penetrating radiation. Penetrating radiation is gamma radiation and a flux of neutrons emitted into the environment from the zone of a nuclear explosion. Ionizing radiation is also released in the form of alpha and beta particles, which have a short free path, as a result of which their impact on people and materials is neglected. The duration of action of penetrating radiation does not exceed 10-15 seconds from the moment of explosion.

The main parameters characterizing ionizing radiation are dose and radiation dose rate, flux and particle flux density.

The ionizing ability of gamma radiation is characterized by the exposure dose of radiation. The unit of gamma radiation exposure dose is coulomb per kilogram (C/kg). In practice, the non-systemic unit roentgen (R) is used as a unit of exposure dose. X-ray is a dose (amount of energy) of gamma radiation, when absorbed in 1 cm3 of dry air (at a temperature of 0 ° C and a pressure of 760 mm Hg), 2.083 billion pairs of ions are formed, each of which has a charge equal to the charge of an electron.

The severity of radiation injury mainly depends on the absorbed dose. To measure the absorbed dose of any type of ionizing radiation, the unit gray (Gy) is established. Propagating in a medium, gamma radiation and neutrons ionize its atoms and change physical structure substances. During ionization, the atoms and molecules of living tissue cells die or lose their ability to continue living due to the disruption of chemical bonds and the breakdown of vital substances.

During air and ground nuclear explosions so close to the ground that the shock wave can disable buildings and structures, the penetrating radiation in most cases is safe for objects. But as the height of the explosion increases, it becomes increasingly important in damaging objects. In explosions at high altitudes and in space, the main damaging factor is the impulse of penetrating radiation.

Damage to humans and animals by penetrating radiation. Radiation sickness can occur in humans and animals when exposed to penetrating radiation. The degree of damage depends on the exposure dose of radiation, the time during which this dose was received, the area of the body irradiated, and the general condition of the body. It is also taken into account that irradiation can be single or multiple. A single exposure is considered to be the exposure received in the first four days. Irradiation received over a period of more than four days is multiple. With a single irradiation of the human body, depending on the exposure dose received, 4 degrees of radiation sickness are distinguished.

Radiation sickness of the first (mild) degree occurs with a total exposure dose of radiation of 100-200 R. The latent period can last 2-3 weeks, after which malaise, general weakness, a feeling of heaviness in the head, tightness in the chest, increased sweating appear, periodic temperature increase. The content of leukocytes in the blood decreases. First degree radiation sickness is curable.

Radiation sickness of the second (medium) degree occurs with a total exposure dose of radiation of 200-400 R. The latent period lasts about a week. Radiation sickness manifests itself in more severe illness, dysfunction nervous system, headaches, dizziness, at first there is often vomiting, possibly an increase in body temperature; the number of leukocytes in the blood, especially lymphocytes, decreases by more than half. With active treatment, recovery occurs in 1.5-2 months. Possible fatalities (up to 20%).

Radiation sickness of the third (severe) degree occurs with a total exposure dose of 400-600 R. The latent period is up to several hours. A severe general condition, severe headaches, vomiting, sometimes loss of consciousness or sudden agitation, hemorrhages in the mucous membranes and skin, necrosis of the mucous membranes in the gum area are noted. The number of leukocytes, and then erythrocytes and platelets, decreases sharply. Due to the weakening of the body's defenses, various infectious complications appear. Without treatment, the disease ends in death in 20-70% of cases, most often from infectious complications or bleeding.

When exposed to an exposure dose of more than 600 R., extremely severe fourth degree radiation sickness develops, which without treatment usually ends in death within two weeks.

Protection from penetrating radiation. Penetrating radiation passing through various media (materials) is attenuated. The degree of weakening depends on the properties of the materials and the thickness of the protective layer. Neutrons are weakened mainly by collisions with atomic nuclei. The energy of gamma quanta when they pass through substances is spent mainly on interaction with the electrons of atoms. Civil defense protective structures reliably protect people from penetrating radiation.

Radioactive contamination. Radioactive contamination occurs as a result of the fallout of radioactive substances from the cloud of a nuclear explosion.

The main sources of radioactivity during nuclear explosions: fission products of substances that make up nuclear fuel (200 radioactive isotopes of 36 chemical elements); induced activity resulting from the impact of the neutron flux of a nuclear explosion on some chemical elements components included in the soil (sodium, silicon and others); some part of the nuclear fuel that does not participate in the fission reaction and enters the explosion products in the form of small particles.

Radiation from radioactive substances consists of three types of rays: alpha, beta and gamma.

Gamma rays have the greatest penetrating power, beta particles have the least penetrating power, and alpha particles have the least penetrating power. Therefore, the main danger to people in case of radioactive contamination of the area is gamma and beta radiation.

Radioactive contamination has a number of features: a large area affected, the duration of the damaging effect, difficulties in detecting radioactive substances that have no color, odor and other external signs.

Zones of radioactive contamination are formed in the area of a nuclear explosion and in the wake of a radioactive cloud. The greatest contamination of the area will be during ground (surface) and underground (underwater) nuclear explosions.

In a ground (underground) nuclear explosion, the fireball touches the surface of the earth. The environment becomes very hot, and much of the soil and rock is vaporized and caught in the fireball. Radioactive substances settle on molten soil particles. As a result, a powerful cloud is formed, consisting of a huge amount of radioactive and inactive fused particles, the sizes of which range from several microns to several millimeters. Within 7-10 minutes the radioactive cloud rises and reaches its maximum height, stabilizes, acquiring a characteristic mushroom shape, and under the influence of air currents moves at a certain speed and in a certain direction. Most of the radioactive fallout, which causes severe contamination of the area, falls from the cloud within 10-20 hours after a nuclear explosion.

When radioactive substances fall out of the cloud of a nuclear explosion, the surface of the earth, air, water sources, material assets, and the like are contaminated.

In airborne and high-altitude explosions, the fireball does not touch the surface of the earth. During an air explosion, almost the entire mass of radioactive products in the form of very small particles goes into the stratosphere and only a small part remains in the troposphere. Radioactive substances fall out of the troposphere within 1-2 months, and from the stratosphere - 5-7 years. During this time, radioactively contaminated particles are carried away by air currents over long distances from the explosion site and are distributed over vast areas. Therefore, they cannot create dangerous radioactive contamination of the area. The only danger can come from radioactivity induced in the soil and objects located near the epicenter of an airborne nuclear explosion. The dimensions of these zones, as a rule, will not exceed the radii of the zones of complete destruction.

The shape of the radioactive cloud's trail depends on the direction and speed of the average wind. On flat terrain with a constant wind direction, the radioactive trace has the shape of an elongated ellipse. Most high degree contamination is observed in areas of the trace located near the center of the explosion and on the axis of the trace. Larger melted particles of radioactive dust fall out here. The lowest degree of contamination is observed at the borders of contamination zones and in areas furthest from the center of a ground-based nuclear explosion.

The degree of radioactive contamination of an area is characterized by the level of radiation for a certain time after the explosion and the exposure dose of radiation (gamma radiation) received during the time from the beginning of contamination to the time of complete decay of radioactive substances.

Depending on the degree of radioactive contamination and possible consequences external irradiation in the area of a nuclear explosion and on the trace of a radioactive cloud, zones of moderate, strong, dangerous and extremely dangerous contamination are distinguished.

Moderate infection zone (zone A). The exposure dose of radiation during the complete decay of radioactive substances ranges from 40 to 400 R. Work in open areas located in the middle of the zone or at its internal border must be stopped for several hours.

Area of heavy contamination (zone B). The exposure dose of radiation during the complete decay of radioactive substances ranges from 400 to 1200 R. In zone B, work at facilities is stopped for up to 1 day, workers and employees take refuge in protective structures of civil defense, basements or other shelters.

Dangerous contamination zone (zone B). At the outer border of the exposure zone, gamma radiation until the complete decay of radioactive substances is 1200 R., at the inner border - 4000 R. In this zone, work stops from 1 to 3-4 days, workers and employees take refuge in protective structures of the civil defense.

Extremely dangerous contamination zone (zone D). At the outer border of the zone, the exposure dose of gamma radiation until the complete decay of radioactive substances is 4000 R. In zone G, work on facilities is stopped for 4 or more days, workers and employees take refuge in shelters. After the specified period, the radiation level on the territory of the facility decreases to values that ensure safe activities of workers and employees in production premises.

The effect of nuclear explosion products on people. Like penetrating radiation in the area of a nuclear explosion, general external gamma radiation in a radioactively contaminated area causes radiation sickness in people and animals. The radiation doses that cause disease are the same as those from penetrating radiation.

When exposed to external beta particles, people most often experience skin lesions on the arms, neck, and head. Skin lesions are classified into severe (the appearance of non-healing ulcers), moderate (formation of blisters) and mild (blue and itchy skin) degrees.

Internal damage to people by radioactive substances can occur when they enter the body, mainly through food. With air and water, radioactive substances will apparently enter the body in such quantities that will not cause acute radiation injury with loss of ability to work in people.

The absorbed radioactive products of a nuclear explosion are distributed extremely unevenly in the body. They are especially concentrated in thyroid gland and liver. In this regard, these organs are exposed to very high doses of radiation, leading either to tissue destruction, or to the development of tumors (thyroid gland), or to serious dysfunction.

Saratov Medical University Saratov State Medical University named after Razumovsky

Medical College Department of Nursing

Abstract on the topic:” Striking factors nuclear weapons ”

Students of group 102

Kulikova Valeria

Checked by Starostenko V.Yu

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………...2

Damaging factors nuclear weapons………………………………………………………..3

Shock wave……………………………………………………………......3

Light radiation……………………………………………………………….7

Penetrating radiation………………………………………………………..8

Radioactive contamination…………………………………………………………….........10

Electromagnetic pulse………………………………………………………......12

Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………......14

References……………………………………………………………15

Introduction.

A nuclear weapon is a weapon whose destructive effect is caused by the energy released during nuclear fission and fusion reactions. It is the most powerful type of weapon of mass destruction. Nuclear weapon intended for mass destruction of people, destruction or destruction of administrative and industrial centers, various objects, structures and equipment.

The damaging effect of a nuclear explosion depends on the power of the ammunition, the type of explosion, and the type of nuclear charge. The power of a nuclear weapon is characterized by its TNT equivalent. Its unit of measurement is t, kt, Mt.

In powerful explosions, characteristic of modern thermonuclear charges, the shock wave causes the greatest destruction, and the light radiation spreads the farthest.

I will consider the damaging factors of a ground-based nuclear explosion and their impact on humans, industrial facilities, etc. And I will give a brief description of the damaging factors of nuclear weapons.

Damaging factors of nuclear weapons and protection.

The damaging factors of a nuclear explosion (NE) are: shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation, radioactive contamination, electromagnetic pulse.

For obvious reasons, an electromagnetic pulse (EMP) does not affect people, but it does damage electronic equipment.

Such a variety of damaging factors suggests that a nuclear explosion is much more dangerous phenomenon than an explosion of a similar amount of conventional explosives in terms of energy output.

Shock wave.

A shock wave is an area of sharp compression of the medium, which propagates in the form of a spherical layer in all directions from the explosion site at supersonic speed. Depending on the propagation medium, a shock wave is distinguished in air, water or soil.

An air shock wave is a zone of compressed air spreading from the center of an explosion. Its source is high pressure and temperature at the point of explosion. The main parameters of the shock wave that determine its damaging effect:

excess pressure in the shock wave front, ΔР f, Pa (kgf/cm2);

velocity pressure, ΔР ск, Pa (kgf/cm2).

Near the center of the explosion, the speed of propagation of the shock wave is several times higher than the speed of sound in air. As the distance from the explosion increases, the speed of wave propagation quickly decreases and the shock wave weakens. An air shock wave during a nuclear explosion of average power travels approximately 1000 meters in 1.4 seconds, 2000 meters in 4 seconds, 3000 meters in 7 seconds, 5000 meters in 12 seconds. Before the front of the shock wave, the pressure in the air is equal to atmospheric pressure P 0 . With the arrival of the shock wave front at a given point in space, the pressure sharply (jumps) increases and reaches a maximum, then, as the wave front moves away, the pressure gradually decreases and after a certain period of time becomes equal to atmospheric pressure. The resulting layer of compressed air is called compression phase. During this period, the shock wave has the greatest destructive effect. Subsequently, continuing to decrease, the pressure becomes below atmospheric pressure and the air begins to move in the direction opposite to the propagation of the shock wave, that is, towards the center of the explosion. This zone of low pressure is called the rarefaction phase.

Directly behind the shock wave front, in the compression region, air masses move. Due to the braking of these air masses, when they meet an obstacle, the pressure of the high-speed pressure of the air shock wave arises.

Velocity pressure ΔР с is a dynamic load created by an air flow moving behind the shock wave front. The propelling effect of high-speed air pressure has a noticeable effect in the zone with excess pressure of more than 50 kPa, where the speed of air movement is more than 100 m/s. At pressures less than 50 kPa, the influence of ΔР с quickly decreases.

The main parameters of the shock wave, characterizing its destructive and damaging effect: excess pressure in the front of the shock wave; velocity head pressure; the duration of the wave action is the duration of the compression phase and the speed of the shock wave front.

During a ground-based nuclear explosion, part of the explosion energy is spent on the formation of a compression wave in the ground. Unlike a shock wave in air, it is characterized by a less sharp increase in pressure at the wave front, as well as a slower weakening behind the front. When a nuclear weapon explodes in the ground, the main part of the explosion energy is transferred to the surrounding mass of soil and produces a powerful shaking of the ground, reminiscent of an earthquake in its effect.

When exposed to people, the shock wave causes injuries (injuries) of varying degrees of severity: straight- from excess pressure and velocity head; indirect- from impacts from fragments of enclosing structures, glass fragments, etc.

According to the severity of damage to people from the shock wave, they are divided into:

to the lungs at ΔР f = 20-40 kPa (0.2-0.4 kgf/cm 2), (dislocations, bruises, ringing in the ears, dizziness, headache);

average at ΔР f = 40-60 kPa (0.4-0.6 kgf/cm 2), (contusions, blood from the nose and ears, dislocations of the limbs);

heavy with ΔР f ≥ 60-100 kPa (severe contusions, damage to hearing and internal organs, loss of consciousness, bleeding from the nose and ears, fractures);

fatal at ΔР f ≥ 100 kPa. There are ruptures of internal organs, broken bones, internal bleeding, concussion, and prolonged loss of consciousness.

Destruction zones

The nature of destruction of industrial buildings depending on the load created by the shock wave. A general assessment of the destruction caused by the shock wave of a nuclear explosion is usually given according to the severity of this destruction:

weak damage at ΔР f ≥ 10-20 kPa (damage to windows, doors, light partitions, basements and lower floors is completely preserved. It is safe to be in the building and it can be used after routine repairs);

average damage at ΔР f = 20-30 kPa (cracks in load-bearing structural elements, collapse of individual sections of walls. Basements are preserved. After clearing and repairs, part of the premises on the lower floors can be used. Restoration of buildings is possible during major repairs);

severe destruction at ΔР f ≥ 30-50 kPa (collapse of 50% of building structures. The use of premises becomes impossible, and repair and restoration are most often impractical);

complete destruction at ΔР f ≥ 50 kPa (destruction of all structural elements of buildings. It is impossible to use the building. Basements with severe and complete destruction can be preserved and after the rubble is cleared, they can be partially used).

Light radiation.

Light radiation from a nuclear explosion, when directly exposed, causes burns to exposed areas of the body, temporary blindness or burns to the retina. Burns are divided into four degrees according to the severity of damage to the body.

First degree burns are expressed in soreness, redness and swelling of the skin. They do not pose a serious danger and are quickly cured without any consequences.

Second degree burns(160-400 kJ/m2), bubbles are formed filled with a transparent protein liquid; If large areas of skin are affected, a person may lose ability to work for some time and require special treatment.

Third degree burns(400-600 kJ/m2) are characterized by necrosis of muscle tissue and skin with partial damage to the germ layer.

Fourth degree burns(≥ 600 kJ/m2): necrosis of the skin of deeper layers of tissue, possible temporary or complete loss of vision, etc. Third- and fourth-degree burns affecting a significant part of the skin can lead to death.

Protection from light radiation is simpler than from other damaging factors. Light radiation travels in a straight line. Any opaque barrier can serve as protection against it. Using holes, ditches, mounds, walls between windows, various types of equipment and the like for shelter, you can significantly reduce or completely avoid burns from light radiation. Shelters and radiation shelters provide complete protection.

Radioactive contamination.

In a radioactively contaminated area, sources of radioactive radiation are: fission fragments (products) of a nuclear explosive (200 radioactive isotopes of 36 chemical elements), induced activity in the soil and other materials, and the undivided part of a nuclear charge.

Radiation from radioactive substances consists of three types of rays: alpha, beta and gamma. Gamma rays have the greatest penetrating power, beta particles have the least penetrating power, and alpha particles have the least penetrating power. Radioactive contamination has a number of features: a large area affected, the duration of the damaging effect, difficulties in detecting radioactive substances that have no color, odor and other external signs.

IN
Depending on the degree of radioactive contamination and the possible consequences of external radiation in the area of a nuclear explosion and on the trace of a radioactive cloud, zones of moderate, severe, dangerous and extremely dangerous contamination are distinguished.

Moderate Infestation Zone(zone A). (40 R) Work in open areas located in the middle of the zone or at its internal border must be stopped for several hours.

Highly infested area(zone B). (400 R) In zone B, work at facilities is stopped for up to 1 day, workers and employees take refuge in protective structures of civil defense, basements or other shelters.

Dangerous contamination zone(zone B). (1200 R) In this zone, work stops from 1 to 3-4 days, workers and employees take refuge in protective structures of the civil defense.

Extremely dangerous contamination zone(zone D). (4000 R) In zone G, work at facilities is stopped for 4 or more days, workers and employees take refuge in shelters. After the specified period, the radiation level on the territory of the facility decreases to values that ensure safe activities of workers and employees in production premises.

A radioactively contaminated area can cause damage to people both due to external γ-radiation from fission fragments, and from the ingress of radioactive products of α, β-radiation onto the skin and inside the human body. Internal damage to people by radioactive substances can occur when they enter the body, mainly through food. With air and water, radioactive substances will apparently enter the body in such quantities that will not cause acute radiation injury with loss of ability to work in people. The absorbed radioactive products of a nuclear explosion are distributed extremely unevenly in the body.

The main way to protect the population should be considered to be the isolation of people from external exposure to radioactive radiation, as well as the elimination of conditions under which radioactive substances can enter the human body along with air and food.

To protect people from getting radioactive substances into the respiratory system and onto the skin when working in conditions of radioactive contamination, personal protective equipment is used. When leaving the zone of radioactive contamination, it is necessary to undergo sanitary treatment, that is, remove radioactive substances that have come into contact with the skin and decontaminate clothing. Thus, radioactive contamination of the area, although it poses an extremely great danger to people, but if protective measures are taken in a timely manner, it is possible to completely ensure the safety of people and their continued ability to work.

Electromagnetic pulse.

An electromagnetic pulse (EMP) is inhomogeneous electromagnetic radiation in the form of a powerful short pulse (with a wavelength from 1 to 1000 m), which accompanies a nuclear explosion and affects electrical, electronic systems and equipment at considerable distances. The source of EMR is the process of interaction of γ-quanta with atoms of the medium. The most striking parameter of EMR is the instantaneous increase (and decrease) in the intensity of the electric and magnetic fields under the influence of an instantaneous γ-pulse (several milliseconds).

When designing systems and equipment, it is necessary to develop protection against EMP. Protection against EMI is achieved by shielding power supply and control lines, as well as equipment. All external lines must be two-wire, well insulated from the ground, with low-inertia spark gaps and fuse-links.

Depending on the nature of the impact of EMR, the following methods of protection can be recommended: 1) the use of two-wire symmetrical lines, well insulated from each other and from the ground; 2) shielding of underground cables with copper, aluminum, lead sheath; 3) electromagnetic shielding of equipment units and components; 4) the use of various kinds of protective input devices and lightning protection equipment.

Conclusion.

Nuclear weapons are the most dangerous of all means of mass destruction known today. And, despite this, its quantities are increasing every year. This obliges every person to know how to protect themselves in order to prevent death, and maybe even more than one. In order to protect yourself, you must have at least the slightest understanding of nuclear weapons and their effects. This is precisely the main task of civil defense: to give a person knowledge so that he can protect himself (and this applies not only to nuclear weapons, but in general to all life-threatening situations).

Damaging factors include:

1) Shock wave. Characteristic: high-speed pressure, sharp increase in pressure. Consequences: destruction by mechanical action of a shock wave and damage to people and animals by secondary factors. Protection:

2) Light radiation. Characteristic: very high temperature, blinding flash. Consequences: fires and burns to human skin. Protection: use of shelters, simple shelters and protective properties terrain.

3) Penetrating radiation. Characteristic: alpha, beta, gamma radiation. Consequences: damage to living cells of the body, radiation sickness. Protection: the use of shelters, anti-radiation shelters, simple shelters and protective properties of the area.

4) Radioactive contamination. Characteristic: large affected area, duration of damaging effect, difficulties in detecting radioactive substances that have no color, odor and other external signs. Consequences: radiation sickness, internal damage from radioactive substances. Protection: the use of shelters, anti-radiation shelters, simple shelters, protective properties of the area and personal protective equipment.

5) Electromagnetic pulse. Characteristic: short-term electromagnetic field. Consequences: the occurrence of short circuits, fires, the effect of secondary factors on humans (burns). Protection: It is good to insulate the lines carrying current.

Damaging factors of a nuclear explosion

Depending on the type of charge and the conditions of the explosion, the energy of the explosion is distributed differently. For example, during the explosion of a conventional nuclear charge without an increased yield of neutron radiation or radioactive contamination there may be the following ratio of the shares of energy output at different altitudes:

Height / Depth	X-ray radiation	Light radiation	The warmth of the fireball and cloud	Shock wave in the air	Deformation and ejection of soil	Compression wave in the ground	Heat of a cavity in the earth	Penetrating radiation	Radioactive substances
Energy shares of the influencing factors of a nuclear explosion
100 km	64 %	24 %						6 %	6 %
70 km	49 %	38 %	1 %					6 %	6 %
45 km	1 %	73 %	13 %	1 %				6 %	6 %
20 km		40 %	17 %	31 %				6 %	6 %
5 km		38 %	16 %	34 %				6 %	6 %
0 m		34 %	19 %	34 %	1 %	less than 1%	?	5 %	6 %
Camouflage explosion depth					30 %	30 %	34 %		6 %

During a ground-based nuclear explosion, about 50% of the energy goes to the formation of a shock wave and a crater in the ground, 30-40% to light radiation, up to 5% to penetrating radiation and electromagnetic radiation, and up to 15% to radioactive contamination of the area.

During an air explosion of a neutron munition, the energy shares are distributed in a unique way: shock wave up to 10%, light radiation 5 - 8% and approximately 85% of the energy goes into penetrating radiation (neutron and gamma radiation)

The shock wave and light radiation are similar to the damaging factors of traditional explosives, but the light radiation in the event of a nuclear explosion is much more powerful.

The shock wave destroys buildings and equipment, injures people and has a knockback effect with a rapid pressure drop and high-speed air pressure. The rarefaction (drop in air pressure) following the wave and reverse stroke air masses towards the developing nuclear mushroom can also cause some damage.

Light radiation affects only unshielded objects, that is, objects not covered by anything from an explosion, and can cause ignition of flammable materials and fires, as well as burns and damage to the vision of humans and animals.

Penetrating radiation has an ionizing and destructive effect on human tissue molecules and causes radiation sickness. Especially great importance has in the explosion of a neutron ammunition. Basements of multi-story stone and reinforced concrete buildings, underground shelters with a depth of 2 meters (a cellar, for example, or any shelter of class 3-4 and higher) can be protected from penetrating radiation; armored vehicles have some protection.

Radioactive contamination - during an air explosion of relatively “pure” thermonuclear charges (fission-fusion), this damaging factor is minimized. And vice versa, in the event of an explosion of “dirty” variants of thermonuclear charges, arranged according to the principle of fission-fusion-fission, a ground, buried explosion, in which neutron activation of substances contained in the ground occurs, and even more so the explosion of a so-called “dirty bomb” may have a decisive meaning.

An electromagnetic pulse disables electrical and electronic equipment and disrupts radio communications.

Shock wave

The most terrible manifestation of an explosion is not a mushroom, but a fleeting flash and the shock wave formed by it

Formation of a bow shock wave (Mach effect) during an explosion of 20 kt

Destruction in Hiroshima as a result of the atomic bombing

Much of the destruction caused by a nuclear explosion is caused by the shock wave. A shock wave is a shock wave in a medium that moves at supersonic speed (more than 350 m/s for the atmosphere). In an atmospheric explosion, a shock wave is a small zone in which there is an almost instantaneous increase in temperature, pressure and air density. Directly behind the shock wave front there is a decrease in air pressure and density, from a slight decrease far from the center of the explosion to almost a vacuum inside the fire sphere. The consequence of this decrease is the reverse flow of air and strong wind along the surface at speeds of up to 100 km/h or more towards the epicenter. The shock wave destroys buildings, structures and affects unprotected people, and close to the epicenter of a ground or very low air explosion it generates powerful seismic vibrations that can destroy or damage underground structures and communications, and injure people in them.

Most buildings, except specially fortified ones, are seriously damaged or destroyed under the influence of excess pressure of 2160-3600 kg/m² (0.22-0.36 atm).

The energy is distributed over the entire distance traveled, because of this the force of the shock wave decreases in proportion to the cube of the distance from the epicenter.

Shelters provide protection against shock waves for humans. In open areas, the effect of the shock wave is reduced by various depressions, obstacles, and folds in the terrain.

Optical radiation

Victim of the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima

Light radiation is a stream of radiant energy, including ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the spectrum. The source of light radiation is the luminous area of the explosion - heated to high temperatures and evaporated parts of ammunition, surrounding soil and air. In an air explosion, the luminous area is a ball; in a ground explosion, it is a hemisphere.

The maximum surface temperature of the luminous region is usually 5700-7700 °C. When the temperature drops to 1700 °C, the glow stops. The light pulse lasts from fractions of a second to several tens of seconds, depending on the power and conditions of the explosion. Approximately, the duration of the glow in seconds is equal to the third root of the explosion power in kilotons. In this case, the radiation intensity can exceed 1000 W/cm² (for comparison, the maximum intensity sunlight 0.14 W/cm²).

The result of light radiation can be the ignition and combustion of objects, melting, charring, and high temperature stresses in materials.

When a person is exposed to light radiation, damage to the eyes and burns to open areas of the body occur, and damage to areas of the body protected by clothing may also occur.

An arbitrary opaque barrier can serve as protection from the effects of light radiation.

In the presence of fog, haze, heavy dust and/or smoke, the impact of light radiation is also reduced.

Penetrating radiation

Electromagnetic pulse

During a nuclear explosion, as a result of strong currents in air ionized by radiation and light, a strong alternating electromagnetic field, called an electromagnetic pulse (EMP), appears. Although it has no effect on humans, exposure to EMR damages electronic equipment, electrical appliances and power lines. Besides a large number of ions generated after the explosion interferes with the propagation of radio waves and the operation of radar stations. This effect can be used to blind a missile warning system.

The strength of the EMP varies depending on the height of the explosion: in the range below 4 km it is relatively weak, stronger at an explosion of 4-30 km, and especially strong at a detonation altitude of more than 30 km (see, for example, the experiment on high-altitude detonation of a nuclear charge Starfish Prime) .

The occurrence of EMR occurs as follows:

Penetrating radiation emanating from the center of the explosion passes through extended conductive objects.
Gamma quanta are scattered by free electrons, which leads to the appearance of a rapidly changing current pulse in conductors.
The field caused by the current pulse is emitted into the surrounding space and propagates at the speed of light, distorting and fading over time.

Under the influence of EMR, a voltage is induced in all unshielded long conductors, and the longer the conductor, the higher the voltage. This leads to insulation breakdowns and failure of electrical appliances associated with cable networks, for example, transformer substations, etc.

EMR is of great importance during a high-altitude explosion of up to 100 km or more. When an explosion occurs in the ground layer of the atmosphere, it does not cause decisive damage to low-sensitive electrical equipment; its range of action is covered by other damaging factors. But on the other hand, it can disrupt the operation and disable sensitive electrical equipment and radio equipment at considerable distances - up to several tens of kilometers from the epicenter powerful explosion, where other factors no longer bring a destructive effect. It can disable unprotected equipment in durable structures designed to withstand heavy loads from a nuclear explosion (for example, silos). It has no harmful effect on people.

Radioactive contamination

Crater from the explosion of a 104-kiloton charge. Soil emissions also serve as a source of contamination

Radioactive contamination is the result of a significant amount of radioactive substances falling out of a cloud lifted into the air. The three main sources of radioactive substances in the explosion zone are fission products of nuclear fuel, the unreacted part of the nuclear charge, and radioactive isotopes formed in the soil and other materials under the influence of neutrons (induced radioactivity).

As the explosion products settle on the surface of the earth in the direction of movement of the cloud, they create a radioactive area called a radioactive trace. The density of contamination in the area of the explosion and along the trace of the movement of the radioactive cloud decreases with distance from the center of the explosion. The shape of the trace can be very diverse, depending on the surrounding conditions.

The radioactive products of an explosion emit three types of radiation: alpha, beta and gamma. The time of their impact on the environment is very long.

Due to the natural decay process, radioactivity decreases, especially sharply in the first hours after the explosion.

Damage to people and animals due to radiation contamination can be caused by external and internal irradiation. Severe cases may be accompanied by radiation sickness and death.

Installing a cobalt shell on the warhead of a nuclear charge causes contamination of the area with the dangerous isotope 60 Co (a hypothetical dirty bomb).

Epidemiological and environmental situation

Nuclear explosion in locality, like other disasters associated with a large number of victims, the destruction of hazardous industries and fires, will lead to difficult conditions in the area of its action, which will be a secondary damaging factor. People who have not even received significant injuries directly from the explosion are likely to die from infectious diseases and chemical poisoning. There is a high probability of getting burned in fires or simply getting hurt when trying to get out of the rubble.

Psychological impact

People who find themselves in the area of the explosion, in addition to physical damage, experience a powerful psychological depressing effect from the striking and frightening view of the unfolding picture of a nuclear explosion, the catastrophic nature of the destruction and fires, the many corpses and mutilated living around, the death of relatives and friends, the awareness of the harm caused to their body. The result of such an impact will be a poor psychological situation among survivors of the disaster, and subsequently persistent negative memories that affect the person’s entire subsequent life. In Japan there is a separate word for people who have become victims nuclear bombings- “Hibakusha”.

Government intelligence services in many countries assume

air shock wave, light radiation, penetrating radiation, electromagnetic pulse, radioactive contamination of the area (only in case of a ground (underground) explosion).

The distribution of the total explosion energy depends on the type of ammunition and the type of explosion.
During an explosion in the atmosphere, up to 50% of the energy is spent on the formation of an air shock wave, 35% on light radiation, 4% on penetrating radiation, 1% on an electromagnetic pulse. Another about 10% of the energy is released not at the moment of the explosion, but over a long period of time during the decay of the fission products of the explosion. During a ground explosion, nuclear fission fragments fall to the ground, where they disintegrate. This is how radioactive contamination of the area occurs.

Air shock wave- this is an area of sharp compression of air, spreading in all directions from the center of the explosion at supersonic speed.

The source of the air wave is high pressure in the explosion area (billions of atmospheres) and temperatures reaching millions of degrees.

Hot gases, trying to expand, strongly compress and heat the surrounding air layers, as a result of which a compression wave or shock wave propagates from the center of the explosion. Near the center of the explosion, the speed of propagation of the air shock wave is several times higher than the speed of sound in air.
As the distance from the center of the explosion increases, the speed decreases and the shock wave transforms into a sound wave.

The highest pressure in the compressed region is observed at its leading edge, which is called the front of the shock air wave.

Difference between normal atmospheric pressure and the pressure at the leading edge of the shock wave is the value of the excess pressure.
Directly behind the shock wave front, strong air currents are formed, the speed of which reaches several hundred kilometers per hour. (Even at a distance of 10 km from the explosion site of a 1 Mt ammunition, the air speed is more than 110 km/h.)
When meeting an obstacle, a velocity pressure load or load is created
braking, which enhances the destructive effect of the air shock wave.
The effect of an air shock wave on objects is quite complex nature and depends on many reasons: the angle of incidence, the reaction of the object, the distance from the center of the explosion, etc.

When the front of the shock wave reaches the front wall of the object,
her reflection. The pressure in the reflected wave increases several times,
which determines the degree of destruction of a given object.

To characterize the destruction of buildings and structures,
four degrees of destruction: complete, strong, medium and weak.

Complete destruction - when all the main elements of the building are destroyed, including supporting structures. The basements may be partially preserved.

Severe destruction - when the supporting structures and floors of the upper floors are destroyed, the floors of the lower floors are deformed. The buildings cannot be used and restoration is impractical.

Medium destruction - when roofs, internal partitions and partially covering the upper floors are destroyed. After clearing, part of the lower floors and basements can be used. Restoration of buildings is possible during major repairs.

Weak destruction - when window and door fillings, roofing and light internal partitions are destroyed. There may be cracks in the walls of the upper floors. The building can be used after current repairs.

Degree of destruction of equipment (equipment):

Complete destruction - the object cannot be restored.

Severe damage - damage that can be eliminated by major repairs at the factory.

Moderate damage - damage that can be repaired by repair shops.

Weak damage is damage that does not significantly affect
use of equipment and are eliminated by routine repairs.

When assessing the impact of an air shock wave on people and animals, a distinction is made between direct and indirect damage.

Direct damage occurs as a result of the action of excess
pressure and velocity pressure, as a result of which a person can be thrown back and injured.

Indirect damage can be caused by debris
buildings, stones, glass and other objects flying under the influence of high-speed pressure.
The impact of a shock wave on people is characterized by mild,
moderate, severe and extremely severe lesions.

Mild lesions occur at excess pressure of 20-40 kPa. They are characterized by temporary hearing impairment, mild contusions, dislocations, and bruises.

Moderate lesions occur at excess pressure of 40-60 kPa. They manifest themselves in contusions of the brain, damage to the hearing organs, bleeding from the nose and ears, and dislocations of the limbs.

Severe injuries are possible at excess pressures from 60 to 100 kPa. They are characterized by severe contusions of the whole body, loss of consciousness, fractures; damage to internal organs is possible.

Extremely severe lesions occur when excess pressure exceeds 100 kPa. People experience injuries to internal organs, internal bleeding, concussion, severe fractures. These lesions are often fatal.

Shelters provide protection from the shock wave. In open areas, the effect of the shock wave is reduced by various depressions and obstacles.
It is recommended to fall on the ground with your head in the direction of the explosion, preferably in a depression or behind a fold in the terrain, cover your head with your hands, ideally so that there are no open areas of skin that may be exposed to light radiation.

Light radiation is a stream of radiant energy, including ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the spectrum.
The source is the luminous area of the explosion, consisting of heated to
high temperature of vapors of structural materials of ammunition and air, and in case of ground explosions and evaporated soil.

The size and shape of the luminous area depend on the power and type of explosion.
In an air explosion it is a ball, in a ground explosion it is a hemisphere.

The maximum surface temperature of the luminous region is approximately 5700-7700°C. When the temperature drops to 1700 °C, the glow stops.

The result of light radiation can be melting, charring, high temperature stress in materials, as well as ignition and combustion.

The damage to people by a light pulse is expressed in the appearance of burns on open areas of the body protected by clothing, as well as damage to the eyes.
Regardless of the cause of burns, the damage is divided into four
degrees:

First degree burns are characterized by superficial damage to the skin: redness, swelling and pain. They are not dangerous.

Second degree burns are characterized by the formation of blisters filled with liquid. Special treatment is required. When affected up to 50-60% of the surface
the body usually recovers.

Third degree burns are characterized by necrosis of the skin and germ layer, as well as the appearance of ulcers.

Fourth degree burns are accompanied by necrosis of the skin and damage to deeper tissues (muscles, tendons and bones).

Significant third and fourth degree burns
parts of the body can be fatal.

Eye damage manifests itself in blindness from 2 to 5 minutes during the day, up to 30 and
more than minutes at night if a person was looking in the direction of the explosion. Up to complete blindness and fundus burns.

Any opaque barrier can serve as protection from light radiation.

Penetrating radiation represents
gamma radiation and the flux of neutrons emitted from the zone of a nuclear explosion.
The duration of action of penetrating radiation is 15-20 seconds. The damaging effect of penetrating radiation on materials is characterized by the absorbed dose, dose rate and neutron flux.
The radius of the damaging effect of penetrating radiation during explosions in the atmosphere is less than the radius of damage from light radiation and air shock waves.
However, on high altitudes, in the stratosphere and space is the main factor
defeats.
Penetrating radiation can cause reversible and irreversible changes in materials, elements of radio engineering, optical and other equipment due to disruption of the crystal lattice of the substance, as well as as a result of various physical and chemical processes under the influence of ionizing radiation.

The damaging effect on people is characterized by the dose of radiation.

The severity of radiation injury depends on the absorbed dose, as well as
from individual characteristics the body and its condition at the time of irradiation.

A radiation dose of 1 Sv (100 rem) in most cases does not lead to serious damage to the human body, but 5 Sv (500 rem) causes a very severe form of radiation sickness.

For ammunition power up to 100 kt, the radii of damage of the air shock wave and penetrating radiation are approximately equal, and for ammunition with a power of more than 100 kt, the zone of action of the air shock wave significantly overlaps the zone of action of penetrating radiation in dangerous doses.

From this we can conclude that during explosions of medium and high power, no special protection against penetrating radiation is required, since protective structures designed to shelter from a shock wave fully protect against penetrating radiation.

For explosions of ultra-low and low power, as well as for neutron munitions, where the affected areas by penetrating radiation are much higher, it is necessary to provide protection against penetrating radiation.

Protection against penetrating radiation is provided by various materials that attenuate radiation and neutron flux.

Radioactive contamination of the area

Its source is fission products of nuclear fuel, radioactive isotopes formed in soil and other materials under the influence of neutrons - induced activity, as well as the undivided part of the nuclear charge.

The radioactive products of an explosion emit three types of radiation: alpha particles, beta particles and gamma radiation.

Since a ground explosion involves a significant amount of
amount of soil and other substances, then upon cooling these particles fall out
in the form of radioactive fallout. As the cloud moves, following its trail
radioactive fallout occurs, and thus on the ground
a radioactive trace remains. Density of contamination in the area of the explosion and in
the trace of the movement of the radioactive cloud decreases as it moves away from the center
explosion.
The shape of the trace can be very diverse, depending on specific conditions. The configuration of the trace can actually be determined only after the end of the fall of radioactive particles on the ground.

An area is considered contaminated at radiation levels of 0.5 P/h or more.

Due to the natural decay process, radioactivity decreases,
especially sharply in the first hours after the explosion. Radiation level for one hour
after an explosion is the main characteristic when assessing radioactive contamination of an area.

Radioactive damage to people and animals in the wake of a radioactive cloud can be caused by external and internal radiation.
Radiation sickness can be a consequence of radiation exposure.

Radiation sickness of the first degree occurs with a single dose of radiation
100-200 R (0.026-0.052 C/kg). The latent period of illness can last
two to three weeks, after which malaise, weakness, dizziness, and nausea appear. The number of leukocytes in the blood decreases. After a few days, these phenomena disappear.
In most cases, no special treatment is required.

Radiation sickness of the second degree occurs at a radiation dose of 200-400
P (0.052-0.104 C/kg). The latent period lasts about a week. Then there is general weakness, headaches, fever, dysfunction of the nervous system, and vomiting. The number of white blood cells is reduced by half.
With active treatment, recovery occurs in one and a half to two months.
Deaths are possible - up to 20% of those affected.

Radiation sickness of the third degree occurs at radiation doses of 400-600
P (0.104-0.156 C/kg). The latent period lasts several hours. There is a general serious condition, severe headaches, chills, fever up to 40 ° C, loss of consciousness (sometimes severe agitation). The disease requires long-term treatment (6-8 months). Without treatment, up to 70% of those affected die.

Radiation sickness of the fourth degree occurs with a single dose
irradiation over 600 R (0.156 C/kg). The disease is accompanied by blackouts, fever, a sharp disturbance of water-salt metabolism and ends in death after 5-10 days.

Radiation diseases in animals occur at higher doses of radiation.

Internal exposure of people and animals is caused by radioactive decay isotopes that enter the body with air, water or food.

A significant part of isotopes (up to 90%) is eliminated from the body within
several days, and the rest are absorbed into the blood and distributed to the organs
and fabrics.

Some isotopes are distributed almost evenly in the body (cesium),
and others concentrate in certain tissues. Yes, in bone tissue
sources of a-particles (radium, uranium, plutonium) are deposited; b particles
(strontium, yttrium) and g-radiation (zirconium). These elements are very weak
are excreted from the body.

Iodine isotopes are predominantly deposited in the thyroid gland; isotopes of lanthanum, cerium and promethium - in the liver and kidneys, etc.

Electromagnetic pulse- causes the emergence of electric and magnetic fields as a result of the impact of gamma radiation from a nuclear explosion on the atoms of environmental objects and the formation of a flow of electrons and positively charged ions. The degree of damage from an electromagnetic pulse depends on the power and type of explosion. The most pronounced damage from electromagnetic pulses occurs during high-altitude (extra-atmospheric) explosions of nuclear weapons, when the affected area can be thousands of square kilometers. Exposure to an electromagnetic pulse can lead to the burning of sensitive electronic and electrical components with large antennas, damage to semiconductor devices, vacuum devices, capacitors, as well as serious disruption of digital and control devices. Thus, exposure to an electromagnetic pulse can lead to disruption of the operation of communication devices, electronic computer equipment, etc., which in war conditions will negatively affect the work of headquarters and other civil defense control bodies. An electromagnetic pulse does not have a pronounced damaging effect on people.
Characteristics of tactical and operational-tactical means of nuclear attack of NATO armed forces

Nuclear attack weapons	Firing range (flight), km	Nuclear weapon power, kt	Time to occupy the prepared OP and open fire	Distance of position area from the front edge, km
Ground troops
"Devi Croquet" (120- and 155-mm)
155 mm howitzer
203.2 mm howitzer			1 min - self-propelled guns; 20-30 minutes per fur. traction
NURS "Little John"
NURS "Onest John"
URS "Lance"
URS "Corporal"			Division 6-10 h
URS "Sergeant"
URS "Pershing"			About 30 min

Now imagine hundreds and thousands of explosions!

Will there be a nuclear winter or not? The question remains open, but I would like to believe that there will be no experimental verification! Don't forget about potentially destroyed chemicals. factories, nuclear power plants, dams! Plus the lack of uncontaminated water, electricity, heat, clean food, housing, medical care. That there is none technical means, excluding antediluvian cars, steam locomotives and some military transport will not work and move, it will be possible to get out only on foot through the contaminated area.

The living will envy the dead!

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