The figurative meaning of the word. Transfer paths

The main means of giving a word imagery is the use of it figuratively. The play of direct and figurative meaning gives rise to both aesthetic and expressive effects of a literary text, making this text figurative and expressive.

Based on the nominative (nominal) function of a word and its connection with the subject in the process of cognition of reality, a distinction is made between direct (basic, main, primary, initial) and figurative (derived, secondary, indirect) meanings.

In the derivative meaning they combine, coexist the basic, direct meaning and new, indirect, resulting from the transfer of the name from one subject to another. If the word is in direct meaning directly (directly) indicates this or that object, action, property, etc., naming them, then the words in portable meaning, an object is no longer named directly, but through certain comparisons and associations that arise in the minds of native speakers.

AIR– 1) ‘adj. To air (air jet)’;

2) ‘light, weightless ( airy dress)’.

The appearance of figurative meanings in a word allows you to save the lexical means of the language without endlessly expanding vocabulary to designate new phenomena and concepts. If there are some common features between two objects, the name from one, already known, is transferred to another object, newly created, invented or known, which did not have a name before:

DIM– 1) ‘opaque, cloudy ( dim glass)’;

2) ‘matte, not shiny ( dull hairspray, dull hair)’;

3) ‘weak, not bright ( dim light, dull colors)’;

4) ‘lifeless, expressionless ( dull look, dull style)’.

D.N. Shmelev believes that the direct, basic meaning is the one that is not determined by the context (most determined paradigmatically and least syntagmatically):

ROAD– 1) ‘a route of communication, a strip of land intended for movement’;

2) ‘travel, trip’;

3) ‘route’;

4) ‘means achievements of some kind. goals'.

All secondary, figurative meanings depend on the context, on compatibility with other words: to pack('trip'), direct road to success, road to Moscow.

Historically, the relationship between direct, primary and figurative, secondary meaning may change. Thus, in modern Russian the primary meanings for words have not been preserved consume(‘eat, eat’), dense('dormant'), vale('valley'). Word thirst in our time, it has the main direct meaning of ‘need to drink’ and figurative ‘strong, passionate desire’, but ancient Russian texts indicate the primacy of the second, more abstract meaning, since the adjective is often used next to it water.

Paths for transferring values

The transfer of meaning can be carried out in two main ways: metaphorical and metonymic.

Metaphor- this is the transfer of names based on the similarity of features and concepts (metaphor - unexpressed comparison): pin stars; what comb won't you comb your head?

Signs of metaphorical transfer:

1. by color similarity ( gold leaves);
2. by similarity of shape ( ring boulevards);
3. by similarity of object location ( nose boats, sleeve rivers);
4. by similarity of actions ( rain drums, wrinkles plow face);
5. by similarity of sensations, emotional associations ( gold character, velvet voice);
6. by similarity of functions ( electric candle in the lamp extinguish/ignite light, wipers in car).

This classification is quite arbitrary. The proof is a transfer based on several criteria: leg chair(form, place); ladle excavator(function, form).

There are other classifications. For example, prof. Galina Al-dr. Cherkasova considers metaphorical transfer in connection with the category of animateness/inanimateness:

1. the action of an inanimate object is transferred to another inanimate object ( fireplace– ‘room stove’ and ‘electric heating device’; wing– ‘birds’, ‘airplane blade, mill’, ‘side extension’);
2. animate - also on an animate object, but of a different group ( bear, snake);
3. inanimate - to animate ( she blossomed );
4. animate - to inanimate ( guard– ‘guard ship’).

The main trends in metaphorical transfer: figurative meanings appear in words that are socially significant in given time. During the Great Patriotic War everyday words were used as metaphors to define military concepts: comb forest, get into boiler . Subsequently, on the contrary, military terms were transferred to other concepts: front work, take on weapons . Sports vocabulary gives many figurative meanings: finish, start, knight's move. With the development of astronautics, metaphors appeared finest hour, escape velocity, dock. Currently, a large number of metaphors are associated with the computer sphere: mouse, archive, maternal pay etc.

There are models of metaphorical transfer in language: certain groups of words form certain metaphors.

• professional characteristics of a person ( artist, craftsman, philosopher, shoemaker, clown, chemist);
• names associated with the disease ( ulcer, plague, cholera, delirium);
• names of natural phenomena when they are transferred to human life ( spring life, hail tears);
• names of household items ( rag, mattress etc.);
• transfer of names of animal actions to humans ( bark, moo).

Metonymy(Greek ‘renaming’) is a transfer of name that is based on the contiguity of the characteristics of two or more concepts: paper– ‘document’.

Types of metonymic transfer:

1. transfer along spatial contiguity ( audience- 'People', Class– ‘children’): (a) transfer of the name containing to the content ( all village came out city I was all worried embankment, ate plate, read Pushkin ); (b) the name of the material from which the item is made is transferred to the item ( To go to silks, V gold; V scarlet And gold clad woods ; dancing gold );
2. transfer by adjacency O th – transferring the name of the action to the result ( dictation, essay, cookies, jam, embroidery);
3. synecdoche(a) transferring the name of a part of a whole to a whole ( one hundred goals livestock; behind him eye Yes eye needed; he's seven mouths feeds; he is mine right hand ; heart heart gives the news) – often found in proverbs; (b) whole to part ( jasmine– ‘bush’ and ‘flowers’; plum– ‘tree’ and ‘fruit’.

This classification does not cover the entire variety of metonymic transfers that exist in the language.

Sometimes when transferring they are used grammatical features words, for example, plural. number: workers hands, relax on yugas, To go to silks . It is believed that the basis of metonymic transfer is nouns.

In addition to common language figurative values, in language fiction portable ones are also observed use words that are characteristic of the work of a particular writer and are one of the means of artistic representation. For example, from L. Tolstoy: fair And Kind sky("War and Peace"); at A.P. Chekhov: crumbly ("The Last Mohican") cozy lady(“From the Memoirs of an Idealist”), faded aunties("Hopeless"); in the works of K.G. Paustovsky: shy sky(“Mikhailovskaya Grove”), sleepy dawn("Third Date") molten noon("Romantics") sleepy day("Sea Habit") white-blooded bulb(“Book of Wanderings”); from V. Nabokov: cloudy tense day(“Luzhin’s Defense”), etc.

Like metaphor, metonymy can be individually authored - contextual, i.e. conditioned by the contextual use of the word, it does not exist outside of this context: – You’re so stupid, brother! - she said reproachfully handset (E. Meek); Redheads trousers sigh and think(A.P. Chekhov); Short fur coats, sheepskin coats crowded...(M. Sholokhov).

Such figurative meanings, as a rule, are not reflected in dictionary interpretations. Dictionaries reflect only regular, productive, generally accepted hyphens fixed by language practice, which continue to arise, playing a large role in enriching the lexical reserves of the language.

Summary of a Russian language lesson in 6th grade

(teacher: Nesvat L.N., teacher of Russian language and literature MKOU OOSH village.

Ershovka, Vyatskopolyansky district, Kirov region)

LESSON TOPIC:

Direct and figurative meaning words

Goals: 1)

To introduce students to the literal and figurative lexical meaning of a word

2)

To develop the ability to find words with a figurative meaning in the text,

4)

Develop skills in working with spelling and punctuation.

During the classes:

Motivation.

1) Teacher's word:

Friends, before announcing the topic of today's lesson, I want to ask you a question,

related to literature, do you know who Ilya Muromets is?

(People's hero, hero of many epics)

In one of the epics about Ilya Muromets there are the following words: “The word is like an apple: from one

green on one side, ruddy on the other, you know how to turn it, girl...”

Think about the meaning of this sentence: The word, if we consider it from different sides,

miscellaneous - “Green on one side”, “Ruddy on the other”. And most importantly: "You know how to do it, girl

turn over", i.e. know how to use your words, as a word can have more than one meaning

It turns out that a word, in addition to its direct meaning, can also have another meaning,

portable. This is the topic of the lesson: “Direct and figurative meaning of the word”

(write in notebooks).

2) Write on the board:

iron nails, iron health.

Teacher's explanation: In the phrase iron nails the adjective means

What is the meaning of the word green? (Unripe,

unripe)

11)

Information on the use of figurative words in fiction

works. (Information from the textbook).

Vocabulary work: personification, metaphor

13) Execute exercise 339

Teacher:

Words with a figurative meaning make it bright and expressive not only

poetic speech, but also prose.

15) Let's turn to exercise 342.

a) Reading the text.

b) Determination of speech style, type of speech.

c) Determining the title of the text.

d) Vocabulary work: azure, coral, sapphire.

16) Recording text, explaining spelling.

: I hope you will be able to determine the literal and figurative meaning of a word. A

When you were very little, you probably didn’t understand a lot. Famous

children's writer K.I. Chukovsky recorded several statements of children who did not know

Reading the roles of the following statements and explaining the words used in

figurative meaning:

“I won’t go to school,” said fifth-grader Seryozha. - There on exams

cutting.

b) - Here In winter it will snow and frost will hit

-And then I won’t go outside.

- Why?

- So that the frost doesn’t hit me.

V) The boy is asked about his sister

- What does your sister Irinka lie down with the roosters?

She doesn’t lie down with the roosters - they peck: she goes to bed alone in her crib.

Mom washed the shirt and asked Petya to hang it to dry in the sun.

Petya left, but soon returned with the shirt.

- Why didn't you hang it up to dry?

- I don't “reached the sun,” answered Petya.

19)

Teacher:

Children, did you hear funny stories. No less fun, I think

will seem to you ex. 340.

20) Exercise: In each pair of sentences, indicate the words used directly

figurative meaning.

The wind howls and whistles in the chimney. The dog howls.

The tired day turned to night. The tired boy bowed his head to

mother's shoulder.

Dad came home from work. The long-awaited day of departure has finally arrived.

The hostess warmed the water. A cheerful song warmed us on the way.

21) Let's summarize the lesson.

a) How does a figurative meaning differ from a direct one?

b) Why are words with figurative meanings used in speech?

) Homework:

Theoretical information on pp. 132-133, exercise 338

Many words in Russian have both direct and figurative meanings. We will talk about what this phenomenon is, how to define a word in a figurative meaning and how this transfer occurs in our article.

About the literal and figurative meaning of the word

Even from the elementary grades of school, we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, a basic one, directly related to any object or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " exit" it is “an opening in a wall or fence through which one can leave a confined space” (Another exit into the courtyard, hiding behind a secret door).

But in addition to the direct meaning, there is also a figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings in one lexical unit are often numerous. So, the same word " exit" This:

1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally we came up with a decent exit from the situation);

2) quantity of products produced (As a result exit details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);

3) appearance on stage ( Exit the main character was met with a standing ovation);

4) exposure rocks(In this place exit limestone made the rocks almost white).

What influences the transfer of the meaning of a word

Depending on what specific feature can be associated with the transfer of the name of one object to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:

1. Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of characteristics of different objects).
2. Metonymy (based on the contiguity of objects).
3. Synecdoche (transfer general meaning for part of it).

The figurative meaning of the word based on the similarity of functions is also considered separately.

Now let's take a closer look at each of the listed types.

What is a metaphor

As mentioned above, a metaphor is a transfer of meaning based on the similarity of features. For example, if objects are similar in shape (the dome of a building - the dome of the sky) or in color (golden jewelry - golden sun).

The metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:

• by function ( heart human - the main organ, heart city ​​- main area);
• by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old lady - grumbles kettle on the stove);
• by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
• on other grounds ( green I am youth - not mature; deep melancholy - it is difficult to get out of it; silk hair - smooth; soft the look is pleasant).

The figurative meaning of a word in the case of a metaphor can also be based on the animation of inanimate objects, and vice versa. For example: the whisper of leaves, gentle warmth, nerves of steel, an empty look, etc.

Metaphorical rethinking based on the convergence of objects according to seemingly different characteristics is also not uncommon: Gray mouse- gray fog - gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife - sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners (dangerous events) in life.

Metonymy

Another trope that uses words used figuratively is - This is metonymy. It is possible under the condition of contiguity of concepts. For example, transferring the name of the premises ( Class) to the group of children in it ( Class rose to meet the teacher) is a metonymy. The same thing happens when you transfer the name of an action to its result (do baking bread - fresh bakery) or properties on their owner (have bass- the aria was sung by the talented bass).

The same principles apply to the transfer of the author’s name to his works ( Gogol- staged in the theater Gogol; Bach- listen Bach) or the name of the container for the contents ( plate- he already two plates ate). Adjacency (proximity) is also monitored when transferring the name of a material to a product made from it ( silk- she in silks walked) or tools for the person working with him ( braid- apparently here braid walked).

Metonymy is an important way of word formation process

With the help of metonymy, any word in a figurative meaning acquires more and more new semantic loads. So, for example, the word " node" even in ancient times it was obtained by transferring the meaning of “a rectangular piece of material into which some objects are tied” (take with you node). And today in dictionaries other meanings have been added to it, which appeared through metonymy:

• the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect or converge;
• part of a mechanism consisting of tightly interacting parts;
• an important place where something is concentrated.

Thus, as you can see, the new figurative meaning of words, which arose with the help of metonymy, serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also allows you to save speech effort, since it makes it possible to replace an entire descriptive construction with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov" instead of "Chekhov in early period your creativity" or " audience” instead of “people sitting in a room listening to a lecturer.”

Synecdoche is considered one of the types of metonymy in linguistics.

What is synecdoche

Words with a figurative meaning, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new meaning due to some similarity or proximity of concepts. And synecdoche is a way of indicating an object through the mention of its characteristic detail or distinctive feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is a transfer of the general meaning of a word to its part.

Here are some of the most common types of this trope.

How and when is synecdoche used?

Synecdoche always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand which words are used figuratively, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine from a sentence taken out of context who we're talking about: « Beard blew smoke from a clay pipe.” But from the previous story everything becomes clear: “Next to him, with the appearance of an experienced sailor, sat a man with a thick beard.”

Thus, synecdoche can be called an anaphoric trope, focused on subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in literary texts to give them grotesqueness or humorous overtones.

The figurative meaning of a word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions

Some linguists also separately consider the transfer of meaning, in which the condition that phenomena have identical functions is met. For example, a janitor is a person who cleans the yard, and a janitor in a car is a device for cleaning windows.

A new meaning also appeared for the word “counter,” which was used to mean “a person who counts something.” Now the meter is also a device.

Depending on which words in a figurative meaning arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original meaning may disappear completely over time.

How sometimes the process of transference affects the underlying meaning of a word

As already mentioned, as figurative meanings develop, a word can expand its semantic meaning. For example, the noun " the basis" meant only: "a longitudinal thread running along the fabric." But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “ main part, the essence of something,” as well as “a part of a word without ending.”

Yes, the emerging figurative meaning of polysemantic words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that at the same time some meanings of the word become obsolete and are put out of use. For example, the word “ nature" has several meanings:

1. Nature ( Nature attracts me with its purity).
2. Human temperament (passionate) nature).
3. Natural conditions, environment (picture from life).
4. Replacing money with goods or products (pay in kind).

But the first of the listed meanings, with which, by the way, this word was borrowed from French, is already outdated, in dictionaries it is designated as “obsolete.” The rest, which developed with the help of transference on its basis, are actively functioning in our time.

How words are used figuratively: examples

Words with a figurative meaning are often used as means of expression fiction, media, and advertising. In the latter case, the technique of deliberate collision in subtext is very popular different meanings one word. So, oh mineral water the advertisement says: “A source of cheerfulness.” The same technique is visible in the slogan for shoe polish: “Brilliant protection.”

The authors works of art To give them brightness and imagery, they use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, Blok’s “silence blooms” or Yesenin’s “birch Rus'”, which over time became very popular.

There are also words in which the transfer of meaning has become “dry”, “erased”. As a rule, we use such words not to convey an attitude towards something, but to name an action or object (go to a goal, the bow of a boat, the back of a chair, etc.). In lexicology they are called nominative metaphors, and in dictionaries, by the way, they are not designated as figurative meaning.

Incorrect use of words in a figurative meaning

In order for words in the literal and figurative meaning to always be in their places in the text and be justified, you need to follow the rules for their use.

It should be remembered that the use of metaphor requires the presence of similarities in the characteristics of the object of the name and in the meaning of the word applied to it. Meanwhile, this is not always observed, and the image used as a metaphor sometimes does not evoke the necessary associations and remains unclear. For example, a journalist, speaking about a ski race, calls it a “ski bullfight” or, reporting about inanimate objects, designates their number as a duet, trio or quartet.

Such a pursuit of “beauty” leads to the opposite result, causing the reader to be perplexed and sometimes laugh, as in the case when it was said about Tolstoy’s portrait: “Tolstoy was hanging in the office by the window.”

The section is very easy to use. Just enter the desired word in the field provided, and we will give you a list of its meanings. I would like to note that our site provides data from various sources - encyclopedic, explanatory, word-formation dictionaries. Here you can also see examples of the use of the word you entered.

What does "figurative meaning of a word" mean?

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

figurative meaning of the word

secondary (derived) meaning of a word that arose on the basis different types associative connections through metonymy, metaphor and other semantic changes. For example, the figurative meaning of the word “wake up” (“the forest woke up”), “falsify” (“falsify the facts”).

figurative meaning of the word

secondary (derived) meaning of a word, associated with the main, main meaning through relations of metonymic, metaphorical dependence or any associative features. P. z. With. can arise on the basis of spatial, temporal, logical, etc. correlation of concepts (adjacency of material and product, process and result, etc.), average metonymic meanings of the words “edition”, “finishing”, “wintering”, “image” ”, based on associations by similarity (in shape, color, nature of movements, etc.), for example, the metaphorical meanings of the words “dull”, “fresh”, “stamp”. As a result of the transfer of names based on general function many P. z. arose. pp., for example, in the words “wing”, “shield”, “satellite”. P. z. With. have greater syntagmatic coherence (see Syntagmatic relations), while direct meanings are most conditioned paradigmatically (see Paradigmatic relations). Patterns of occurrence of P. z. With. (regularity and irregularity of formation of semantically homogeneous groups of words, etc.), the nature of their relationship with the main meaning (for example, the direction of development from more specific values to more abstract ones, etc.) can be described both in synchronic (see Synchrony) and diachronic (see Diachrony) plans. In the history of the development of the language of P. z. With. can become the main ones and vice versa (average development of meanings for the words “hearth”, “slum”, “red”). This shift in the semantic structure of words is influenced by various factors(emotional and evaluative elements, associative connections accompanying the word when used, etc.).

Lit.: Vinogradov V.V., Basic types lexical meanings words, “Issues of linguistics”, 1953, ╧5; Kurilovich E., Notes on the meaning of words, in his book: Essays on Linguistics, M., 1962; Shmelev D.N., Problems of semantic analysis of vocabulary, M., 1973.