What does "figurative meaning of a word" mean? Direct and figurative meaning of the word

A word can have one lexical meaning. Such words are called unambiguous, For example: dialogue, purple, saber, on alert, appendicitis, birch, felt-tip pen

There are several types unambiguous words

1. These include, first of all, proper names (Ivan, Petrov, Mytishchi, Vladivostok). Their extremely specific meaning excludes the possibility of varying the meaning, since they are the names of individual objects.

2. Words that have recently arisen and are not yet widely used are usually unambiguous. (briefing, grapefruit, pizza, pizzeria and so on.). This is explained by the fact that in order to develop polysemy in a word, it must be used frequently in speech, and new words cannot immediately gain universal recognition and distribution.

3. Words with a narrow subject meaning are unambiguous (binoculars, trolleybus, suitcase). Many of them denote objects of special use and therefore are rarely used in speech (beads, turquoise). This helps them maintain clarity.

4. One meaning usually distinguishes the terms: tonsillitis, gastritis, fibroids, syntax, noun.

Most Russian words have not one, but several meanings. These words are called polysemantic, they are opposed to unambiguous words. The ability of words to have multiple meanings is called polysemy. For example: word root- ambiguous. In the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” by S. I. Ozhegov and N. Yu. Shvedova, four meanings of this word are indicated:

1. The underground part of the plant. The apple tree has taken root. 2. The inside of a tooth, hair, nail. Turn red to the roots of your hair. 3. trans. The beginning, source, basis of something. The root of evil. 4. In linguistics: basic, significant part words. Root- significant part of a word.

Direct meaning of the word- this is its main meaning. For example, adjective gold means "made of gold, composed of gold": gold coin, gold chain, gold earrings.

figurative meaning of the word- this is its secondary, non-basic meaning, which arose on the basis of the direct one. Golden autumn, golden curls- the adjective in these phrases has a different meaning - figurative (“similar to gold in color”). Golden time, golden hands- in these examples the adjective has a figurative meaning - “beautiful, happy.”

The Russian language is very rich in such transfers:

wolf skin- voracious appetite;

iron nail- iron character.

If we compare these phrases, we can see that adjectives with a figurative meaning not only tell us about some quality of a person, but evaluate it, figuratively and vividly describe it: golden character, deep mind, warm heart, cold look.

The use of words in a figurative meaning gives speech expressiveness and imagery. Poets and writers are looking for fresh, unexpected, accurate means of conveying their thoughts, feelings, emotions, and moods. Based on the figurative meaning of words, they are created special means artistic representation: comparison, metaphor, personification, epithet and etc.

Thus, based on the figurative meaning of the word, the following are formed:

comparison(one object is compared with another). The moon is like a lantern; fog like milk;

metaphor(hidden comparison). Rowan bonfire(rowan, like a fire); bird cherry sprinkles snow(cherry bird is like snow);

personification(human properties are transferred to animals and inanimate objects). The grove dissuaded me; the cranes do not regret; the forest is silent;

epithet(figurative use of adjectives). Golden grove; birch tongue; pearl frost; dark fate.

Language is a multifaceted and multifunctional concept. Determining its essence requires careful consideration of many issues. For example, the structure of the language and the relationship between the elements of its system, influence from external factors and functions in human society.

Defining figurative values

Already in elementary school, everyone knows that the same words can be used in different ways in speech. Direct (main, basic) meaning is one that is correlated with objective reality. It does not depend on the context or allegory. An example of this is the word “collapse”. In medicine it means a sharp and sudden drop in blood pressure, and in astronomy it means the rapid compression of stars under the influence of gravitational forces.

The figurative meaning of words is their second meaning. It arises when the name of a phenomenon is consciously transferred to another due to the similarity of their functions, characteristics, etc. For example, the same “collapse” received Examples concern public life. Thus, in a figurative sense, “collapse” means destruction, the collapse of the unification of people as a result of the onset of a systemic crisis.

Scientific definition

In linguistics, the figurative meaning of words is their secondary derivative, associated with the main meaning by metaphorical, metonymic dependence or any associative features. At the same time, it arises on the basis of logical, spatial, temporal and other correlations of concepts.

Application in speech

Words with a figurative meaning are used when naming those phenomena that are not the usual and permanent object of designation. They come close to other concepts through emerging associations that are obvious to speakers.

Words used figuratively can retain imagery. For example, dirty insinuations or dirty thoughts. Such figurative meanings are given in explanatory dictionaries. These words are different from the metaphors invented by writers.
However, in most cases, when a transfer of meaning occurs, the imagery is lost. An example of this is such expressions as the spout of a teapot and the elbow of a pipe, the passage of a clock and the tail of a carrot. In such cases, there is a fading of imagery in

Changing the essence of a concept

The figurative meaning of words can be assigned to any action, sign or object. As a result, it moves into the category of main or basic. For example, the spine of a book or a door handle.

Polysemy

The figurative meaning of words is often a phenomenon caused by their polysemy. In scientific language it is called “Polysemy”. Often one word has more than one stable meaning. In addition, people who use language often have a need to name a new phenomenon that does not yet have a lexical designation. In this case, they use words that are already familiar to them.

Questions of polysemy are, as a rule, questions of nomination. In other words, the movement of things with the existing identity of the word. However, not all scientists agree with this. Some of them do not allow more than one meaning for a word. There is another opinion. Many scientists support the idea that the figurative meaning of words is their lexical meaning, realized in various variants.

For example, we say “red tomato”. Used in in this case the adjective is the direct meaning. “Red” can also be said about a person. In this case, it means that he blushed or blushed. Thus, a figurative meaning can always be explained through a direct one. But linguistics cannot give an explanation. That's just the name of this color.

In polysemy, there is also the phenomenon of unequal meanings. For example, the word “flare up” can mean that an object suddenly caught fire, or that a person blushed with shame, or that a quarrel suddenly arose, etc. Some of these expressions are more common in the language. They immediately come to mind when this word is mentioned. Others are used only in special situations and special combinations.

There are semantic connections between some meanings of a word, which make understandable the phenomenon when various properties and objects are named the same.

Trails

The use of a word in a figurative meaning can be not only a stable fact of language. Such use is sometimes limited, fleeting and within the context of only one utterance. In this case, the goal of exaggeration and special expressiveness of what is said is achieved.

Thus, there is an unstable figurative meaning of the word. There are examples of this use in poetry and literature. For these genres, this is an effective artistic technique. For example, in Blok one can recall “the deserted eyes of the carriages” or “the dust swallowed the rain in pills.” What is the figurative meaning of the word in this case? This is evidence of his unlimited ability to explain new concepts.

Emergence figurative meanings words of a literary-stylistic type are tropes. In other words,

Metaphor

In philology there are a number of various types transfer of names. One of the most important among them is metaphor. With its help, the name of one phenomenon is transferred to another. Moreover, this is only possible if certain characteristics are similar. Similarity can be external (in color, size, character, shape and movements), as well as internal (in assessment, sensations and impressions). So, with the help of metaphor they talk about dark thoughts and a sour face, a calming storm and a cold reception. In this case, the thing is replaced, but the attribute of the concept remains unchanged.

The figurative meaning of words with the help of metaphor occurs with varying degrees of similarity. An example of this is a duck (a device in medicine) and a tractor caterpillar. The transfer using similar forms is used here. The names given to a person can also carry a metaphorical meaning. For example, Hope, Love, Faith. Sometimes meanings are transferred based on similarity to sounds. So, the horn was called a siren.

Metonymy

This is also one of the most important types of title transfers. However, when using it, the similarities between internal and external signs. Here there is a contiguity of cause-and-effect relationships or, in other words, the contact of things in time or space.

The metonymic figurative meaning of words is a change not only of the subject, but also of the concept itself. When this phenomenon occurs, only the connections of neighboring links of the lexical chain can be explained.

The figurative meanings of words can be based on associations with the material from which the object is made. For example, earth (soil), table (food), etc.

Synecdoche

This concept means the transfer of any part to the whole. An example of this is the expression “a child follows his mother’s skirt”, “a hundred head of cattle”, etc.

Homonyms

This concept in philology means identical sounds of two or more different words. Homonymy is a sound coincidence of lexical units that are not semantically related to each other.

There are phonetic and grammatical homonyms. The first case concerns those words that are in the accusative or sound the same, but at the same time have a different composition of phonemes. For example, “twig” and “pond”. Grammatical homonyms arise in cases where both the phoneme and pronunciation of the words are the same, but the individual words are different. For example, the number “three” and the verb “three”. If the pronunciations of such words change, they will not be the same. For example, “rub”, “three”, etc.

Synonyms

This concept refers to words of the same part of speech, identical or similar in their lexical meaning. The origins of synonymy are foreign language and its own lexical meanings, general literary and dialect. Such figurative meanings of words also arise thanks to jargon (“to burst” - “to eat”).

Synonyms are divided into types. Among them:

• absolute, when the meanings of words completely coincide (“octopus” - “octopus”);
• conceptual, differing in shades of lexical meanings (“reflect” - “think”);
• stylistic, which have differences in stylistic coloring (“sleep” - “sleep”).

Antonyms

This concept refers to words that belong to the same part of speech, but have opposite concepts. This type of figurative meaning may have a difference in structure (“to take out” - “to bring in”) and different roots (“white” - “black”).
Antonymy is observed in those words that express the opposing orientation of characteristics, states, actions and properties. The purpose of their use is to convey contrasts. This technique is often used in poetic and

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What does "figurative meaning of a word" mean?

Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1998

figurative meaning of the word

secondary (derived) meaning of a word that arose on the basis different types associative connections through metonymy, metaphor and other semantic changes. For example, the figurative meaning of the word “wake up” (“the forest woke up”), “falsify” (“falsify the facts”).

figurative meaning of the word

secondary (derived) meaning of a word, associated with the main, main meaning through relations of metonymic, metaphorical dependence or any associative features. P. z. With. can arise on the basis of spatial, temporal, logical, etc. correlation of concepts (adjacency of material and product, process and result, etc.), average metonymic meanings of the words “edition”, “finishing”, “wintering”, “image” ”, based on associations by similarity (in shape, color, nature of movements, etc.), for example, the metaphorical meanings of the words “dull”, “fresh”, “stamp”. As a result of the transfer of names based on general function many P. z. arose. pp., for example, in the words “wing”, “shield”, “satellite”. P. z. With. have greater syntagmatic coherence (see Syntagmatic relations), while direct meanings are most conditioned paradigmatically (see Paradigmatic relations). Patterns of occurrence of P. z. With. (regularity and irregularity of formation of semantically homogeneous groups of words, etc.), the nature of their relationship with the main meaning (for example, the direction of development from more specific values to more abstract ones, etc.) can be described both in synchronic (see Synchrony) and diachronic (see Diachrony) plans. In the history of the development of the language of P. z. With. can become the main ones and vice versa (average development of meanings for the words “hearth”, “slum”, “red”). This shift in the semantic structure of words is influenced by various factors(emotional and evaluative elements, associative connections accompanying the word when used, etc.).

Lit.: Vinogradov V.V., Basic types of lexical meanings of a word, “Questions of Linguistics”, 1953, ╧5; Kurilovich E., Notes on the meaning of words, in his book: Essays on Linguistics, M., 1962; Shmelev D.N., Problems of semantic analysis of vocabulary, M., 1973.

Many words in Russian have both direct and figurative meanings. We will talk about what this phenomenon is, how to define a word in a figurative meaning and how this transfer occurs in our article.

About the literal and figurative meaning of the word

Even from the elementary grades of school, we know that words in the Russian language have a direct meaning, that is, a basic one, directly related to any object or phenomenon. For example, for the noun " exit" it is “an opening in a wall or fence through which one can leave a confined space” (Another exit into the courtyard, hiding behind a secret door).

But in addition to the direct meaning, there is also a figurative meaning of the word. Examples of such meanings in one lexical unit are often numerous. So, the same word " exit" This:

1) a way to get rid of the problem (Finally we came up with a decent exit from the situation);

2) quantity of products produced (As a result exit details turned out to be slightly lower than expected);

3) appearance on stage ( Exit the main character was met with a standing ovation);

4) exposure rocks(In this place exit limestone made the rocks almost white).

What influences the transfer of the meaning of a word

Depending on what specific feature can be associated with the transfer of the name of one object to another, linguists distinguish three types of it:

1. Metaphor (transfer is associated with the similarity of characteristics of different objects).
2. Metonymy (based on the contiguity of objects).
3. Synecdoche (transfer general meaning for part of it).

The figurative meaning of the word based on the similarity of functions is also considered separately.

Now let's take a closer look at each of the listed types.

What is a metaphor

As mentioned above, a metaphor is a transfer of meaning based on the similarity of features. For example, if objects are similar in shape (the dome of a building - the dome of the sky) or in color (golden jewelry - golden sun).

The metaphor also implies the similarity of other meanings:

• by function ( heart human - the main organ, heart city ​​- main area);
• by the nature of the sound ( grumbles old lady - grumbles kettle on the stove);
• by location ( tail animal - tail trains);
• on other grounds ( green I am youth - not mature; deep melancholy - it is difficult to get out of it; silk hair - smooth; soft the look is pleasant).

The figurative meaning of a word in the case of a metaphor can also be based on the animation of inanimate objects, and vice versa. For example: the whisper of leaves, gentle warmth, nerves of steel, an empty look, etc.

Metaphorical rethinking based on the convergence of objects according to seemingly different characteristics is also not uncommon: Gray mouse- gray fog - gray day - gray thoughts; sharp knife - sharp mind - sharp eye - sharp corners (dangerous events) in life.

Metonymy

Another trope that uses words used figuratively is - This is metonymy. It is possible under the condition of contiguity of concepts. For example, transferring the name of the premises ( Class) to the group of children in it ( Class rose to meet the teacher) is a metonymy. The same thing happens when you transfer the name of an action to its result (do baking bread - fresh bakery) or properties on their owner (have bass- the aria was sung by the talented bass).

The same principles apply to the transfer of the author’s name to his works ( Gogol- staged in the theater Gogol; Bach- listen Bach) or the name of the container for the contents ( plate- he already two plates ate). Adjacency (proximity) is also monitored when transferring the name of a material to a product made from it ( silk- she in silks walked) or tools for the person working with him ( braid- apparently here braid walked).

Metonymy is an important way of word formation process

With the help of metonymy, any word in a figurative meaning acquires more and more new semantic loads. So, for example, the word " node" even in ancient times it was obtained by transferring the meaning of “a rectangular piece of material into which some objects are tied” (take with you node). And today in dictionaries other meanings have been added to it, which appeared through metonymy:

• the place where the lines of roads or rivers intersect or converge;
• part of a mechanism consisting of tightly interacting parts;
• an important place where something is concentrated.

Thus, as you can see, the new figurative meaning of words, which arose with the help of metonymy, serves the development of vocabulary. By the way, this also allows you to save speech effort, since it makes it possible to replace an entire descriptive construction with just one word. For example: "early Chekhov" instead of "Chekhov in early period your creativity" or " audience” instead of “people sitting in a room listening to a lecturer.”

Synecdoche is considered one of the types of metonymy in linguistics.

What is synecdoche

Words with a figurative meaning, examples of which were given earlier, acquired a new meaning due to some similarity or proximity of concepts. And synecdoche is a way of indicating an object through the mention of its characteristic detail or distinctive feature. That is, as mentioned above, this is a transfer of the general meaning of a word to its part.

Here are some of the most common types of this trope.

How and when is synecdoche used?

Synecdoche always depends on the context or situation, and in order to understand which words are used figuratively, the author must first describe the hero or his environment. For example, it is difficult to determine from a sentence taken out of context who we're talking about: « Beard blew smoke from a clay pipe.” But from the previous story everything becomes clear: “Next to him, with the appearance of an experienced sailor, sat a man with a thick beard.”

Thus, synecdoche can be called an anaphoric trope, focused on subtext. The designation of an object by its characteristic detail is used in colloquial speech and in literary texts to give them grotesqueness or humorous overtones.

The figurative meaning of a word: examples of transfer by similarity of functions

Some linguists also separately consider the transfer of meaning, in which the condition that phenomena have identical functions is met. For example, a janitor is a person who cleans the yard, and a janitor in a car is a device for cleaning windows.

A new meaning also appeared for the word “counter,” which was used to mean “a person who counts something.” Now the meter is also a device.

Depending on which words in a figurative meaning arise as a result of the named process, their associative connection with the original meaning may disappear completely over time.

How sometimes the process of transference affects the underlying meaning of a word

As already mentioned, as figurative meanings develop, a word can expand its semantic meaning. For example, the noun " the basis" meant only: "a longitudinal thread running along the fabric." But as a result of the transfer, this meaning expanded and was added to it: “ main part, the essence of something,” as well as “a part of a word without ending.”

Yes, the emerging figurative meaning of polysemantic words leads to an increase in their expressive properties and contributes to the development of the language as a whole, but it is interesting that at the same time some meanings of the word become obsolete and are put out of use. For example, the word “ nature" has several meanings:

1. Nature ( Nature attracts me with its purity).
2. Human temperament (passionate) nature).
3. Natural conditions, environment (picture from life).
4. Replacing money with goods or products (pay in kind).

But the first of the listed meanings, with which, by the way, this word was borrowed from French, is already outdated, in dictionaries it is designated as “obsolete.” The rest, which developed with the help of transference on its basis, are actively functioning in our time.

How words are used figuratively: examples

Words with a figurative meaning are often used as means of expression fiction, media, and advertising. In the latter case, the technique of deliberate collision in subtext is very popular different meanings one word. So, oh mineral water the advertisement says: “A source of cheerfulness.” The same technique is visible in the slogan for shoe polish: “Brilliant protection.”

The authors works of art To give them brightness and imagery, they use not only the already known figurative meaning of words, but also create their own versions of metaphors. For example, Blok’s “silence blooms” or Yesenin’s “birch Rus'”, which over time became very popular.

There are also words in which the transfer of meaning has become “dry”, “erased”. As a rule, we use such words not to convey an attitude towards something, but to name an action or object (go to a goal, the bow of a boat, the back of a chair, etc.). In lexicology they are called nominative metaphors, and in dictionaries, by the way, they are not designated as figurative meaning.

Incorrect use of words in a figurative meaning

In order for words in the literal and figurative meaning to always be in their places in the text and be justified, you need to follow the rules for their use.

It should be remembered that the use of metaphor requires the presence of similarities in the characteristics of the object of the name and in the meaning of the word applied to it. Meanwhile, this is not always observed, and the image used as a metaphor sometimes does not evoke the necessary associations and remains unclear. For example, a journalist, speaking about a ski race, calls it a “ski bullfight” or, reporting about inanimate objects, designates their number as a duet, trio or quartet.

Such a pursuit of “beauty” leads to the opposite result, causing the reader to be perplexed and sometimes laugh, as in the case when it was said about Tolstoy’s portrait: “Tolstoy was hanging in the office by the window.”

Content

The word can be found both in a literal and figurative meaning. Such words are called polysemous.

Direct meaning of the word

In order to directly designate an object, its action or the characteristic it possesses, the direct meaning of the word is used. Such lexical units do not raise doubts about the designation and do not change the semantic load or emotional coloring of the text. Examples:

There is a table in the middle of the room with textbooks on it.

A hare gallops along the edge of the forest among trees and bushes.

The sun's rays reflected in the window, creating glare.

Many words are used in speech only in direct meaning: With yn, apartment, sun, sad, famous.

Direct meaning of the word- this is its main lexical meaning.

The emergence of a figurative meaning of the word

The main lexical meaning can serve as the basis for the formation of other, secondary meanings. Such values ​​are called figurative meanings and give a completely different meaning. The basis for using a word in a different sense is the similarity of one object to another, their characteristics or actions.

For example, when using the word “ gold" in the phrase " Golden ring ", the meaning of the adjective is clear, meaning a precious metal, which determines the cost and value of an item.

In another example - "z golden hands", word " gold"takes on a figurative meaning because it is used figuratively lexical meaning and stands for “skillful”, “active”, “irreplaceable”.

Replacement explained general features in meaning, external resemblance. IN in this example for both direct and figurative meanings we can use the synonym “ precious" This justifies the polysemy. Words that can be used not only in the literal sense are called polysemantic. Examples:

• soft carpet - soft character - soft light;
• iron door - iron will - iron discipline.

Examples of words in a figurative meaning

• the heart muscle is the heart's friend;
• earthworm - bookworm;
• hit with a stick - thunder struck;
• door handle - ballpoint pen;
• red tongue - English;
• an idea was born - a daughter was born;
• wave crest - hair comb;
• artistic brush - hand;
• building column - column of demonstrators;
• the sleeve of clothing is the sleeve of the river.

The figurative meaning allows you to add emotionality and imagery to artistic speech. Thanks to him, trails are formed - the ambiguous use of words in fiction(litotes, metonymy, comparison, epithet, metaphor).