Ancient Greece is the birthplace of ancient Greece. Abstract: Ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean Ancient Greece, the birthplace of democracy

The first center of civilization originated on the island of Crete at the turn of the 3rd - 2nd millennium BC. Around the 15th century BC. Cretan culture perishes tragically (apparently after a volcanic eruption). It is replaced by the Achaean culture. The Achaean tribes spread to most of Greece and the islands of the Aegean. The eras of the Cretan and Achaean cultures can be considered a kind of preparatory stage, after which the history of the Greek civilization proper begins.

From the 8th to the 6th centuries BC. Greece occupied the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea and the western coast of Asia Minor. Around 500 B.C. the great Greek colonization begins, which opened up huge opportunities for trade, accelerated the development of shipbuilding and all the various crafts associated with it. Rich cities grew rapidly in the colonies - Chalkis, Corinth, Megara, Miletus, Eretria. Strong trade ties were established between them and the metropolis. Grain, timber, metals and products were supplied from the colonies. In turn, from the metropolis, they brought to the colonies what Greece was so famous for - handicrafts, wines, olive oil.

By the 5th century BC. Greece acquired those characteristic features that still arouse the interest of millions of people, forcing them to turn again and again to the monuments of Greek history, reread the works of Homer and admire the ruins of the Athenian Acropolis.

The main form of social organization in ancient Greece was the policy - a civil community based on antique form of ownership. Only a Greek by birth could become a citizen of the policy, he must be free (not a slave) and have property. The policy consisted of a city center and an agricultural district adjacent to it. All land was owned by the polis. Only a citizen of the policy could become the owner of a land plot. The main occupations were agriculture (horticulture, viticulture), cattle breeding (sheep breeding, pig breeding), and craft. The policy was characterized by subsistence farming, which was based on the principle autarky. The polis lived by its own laws. The norms of behavior and life in the policy gradually evolved into civil law. The policy was considered the main value. The benefit of every citizen depended on the well-being of the policy. All citizens of the policy were formally equal and had certain political (civil) rights that allowed them to participate in the management of the policy.

Ancient Greece became the cradle of democracy. The classical form of democracy developed in Athens. All citizens of the policy had the right to be elected to the highest positions (except for the position of military leader). People's Assembly It became the supreme body of power and received wide powers:

made laws

resolved issues of war and peace,

entered into or terminated contracts with other policies,

elected officials and checked their work.

At the meetings, all issues were carefully discussed, and everyone had the right to express their point of view. The supreme governing body - College of Archons consisted of nine people who were elected by all free citizens of Athens (later it was replaced by the Council of Five Hundred). In addition to the College of Archons and the National Assembly in Athens, there were other government bodies - helium(high court) and College of Strategists. Athenian citizens themselves brought charges, defended themselves (the one against whom the accusation was directed had to personally appear in court, as well as the one who accused. It was forbidden to expose his representative), they themselves made decisions on the case.

Another characteristic feature of Ancient Greece is classical slavery. The entire population of Greece was divided into free citizens and slaves. They became slaves by birth (the children of a slave were also considered slaves) and as a result of military captivity. The owner had unlimited power over the slave, he could sell, buy, punish, kill him. Slaves were not considered human. They were often called "talking tools", which must be taken care of, since they themselves cannot make independent decisions.

But Ancient Greece is known not only as the birthplace of democracy. The culture and art of ancient Greece became the basis for the development of European culture. Science developed in Greece - mathematics, medicine, logic, rhetoric, philosophy. A feature of ancient culture is the epic way of perceiving reality and the combination of myth and man. The fantastic interpretation of reality was of an artistic nature, while heroism was considered an indispensable condition of life. In artistic culture, syncritism is gradually being broken, new genres appear - drama, comedy, tragedy. The desire to reflect the harmony of nature and man is reflected in sculpture, architecture, painting, and art.

. Ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean (Greece, Rome, Macedonia)

The history of the ancient world has long attracted the special attention of European scholars. The point is not only that of all the periods of antiquity it is the best studied. It is believed that the civilizations of Greece and Rome stood at the origins of European traditions of political, economic and spiritual life.

ancient greece

At the turn of the III-II millennium BC. the inhabitants of Greece and the adjacent islands learned to make tools from bronze - an alloy of copper and tin. During this period, the first state formation in Europe was formed on the island of Crete. Archaeologists have found the ruins of palaces on the island, evidence of the existence of a developed writing system.

Figure 2.4.1.

In 1450 BC The civilization of Crete was destroyed by volcanic eruption and earthquakes. Around the same time, Mycenaean (Achaean) tribes, who then lived in Greece, invaded Crete. They adopted the Cretan writing system, began to play a prominent role in the trade of the Eastern Mediterranean. However, in the XII century BC. the developing Achaean civilization was destroyed by the unions of the Greco-Dorian, Thessalian, Boeotian, Ionian tribes of the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor (they were known to the Egyptians as the "peoples of the sea"). Having moved to Greece, these tribes partly merged with the Achaeans, partly enslaved them.

After the conquest, the economy of Greece fell into decline, the population declined sharply. Only from the VIII century BC. the rise of the Greek city-states began. The features of their development were largely determined by natural conditions, the geopolitical position of Greece.

The relatively small, mountainous area was favorable for horticulture and cattle breeding, but not for agriculture. The sea played an important role here: fishing and maritime trade made it possible to make up for the lack of products. From the 5th century BC the colonization of the coast of Asia Minor, the Black Sea region, and Italy began to acquire increasing importance. An excess of the population rushed into the colony, they supplied Greece with the missing products. The first Greek colony, the city of Cum, was founded in 750 BC. on the coast of Italy.

City-states of Greece

In ancient Greece, there was no large, unified state. The gradual development of tribal communities led to the formation on their basis of several hundred small independent state-policies, including a settlement (city) and adjacent land. Each policy had its own laws, a special management system, although common features inherited from the tribal system were also preserved. So, a special role was played by the councils of elders, which were a tribal aristocracy and meetings of tribal members, behind which the rights of citizens were recognized. Foreigners, even the wealthy, and slaves had no right to participate in public life. The land was considered as the common property of the policy, its property. With the development of commodity-money relations, it became possible to buy and sell plots of land (although in some policies it was limited), but only by citizens of this policy.

Ancient Greece is considered to be the birthplace of democracy. Indeed, over time in the largest city-states, especially in Athens who escaped the Dorian conquest, significant changes took place in public life.

Instead of the hereditary power of tribal leaders (kings), the principle of the election of the supreme ruler (archon) was introduced, his accountability to the council of heads of clans (areopagus). The power of tradition and custom was gradually replaced by laws (the first of them, establishing general norms of behavior for all citizens and punishment for their violation, were adopted in 621 BC).

At the beginning of the VI century BC. on the initiative of the archon Solon (635-559 BC), the entire population of the policy was divided into four categories depending on the property status. This weakened the position of the tribal nobility. The wealthy merchants and artisans became equal in rights with her.

At the end of the VI century BC. instead of dividing the policy into tribal possessions, the principle of its division into 10 districts was adopted, each of which elected its representatives to a new council (council of five hundred), which dealt with all current affairs. The Areopagus retained only judicial functions in cases that did not involve property disputes. Foreigners, successfully doing business in Athens, received the rights of citizens. The total number of citizens was about 30 thousand people.

According to the tradition established in Athens, active participation in the affairs of the polis, the defense of democracy were the most important right and duty of citizens. At the meetings, questions of war and peace were decided and officials were elected. The assembly could sentence to expulsion from the policy persons who posed a threat to democracy and were prone to tyranny.

Thus, by the 5th century BC. tribal system in Athens was finally supplanted by a new state organization, which was called democracy .

Another way of developing the policy was demonstrated Sparta. This state was founded by the Dorian tribe, which, having settled in the south of the Peloponnesian Peninsula, turned the local population into disenfranchised slaves (helots). The Spartans considered it unworthy for themselves to cultivate the land, engage in trade, craft. This was the lot of slaves and newcomers from the surrounding settlements. War was considered the only respectable occupation for men. The education system was subordinated to one goal - the training of hardy, laconic, disciplined warriors. The tradition of the Spartans went down in history to kill children who were born weak, from whom, as they believed, they would not make good soldiers.

Figure 2.4.2.

In Sparta, the orders of the tribal system remained unchanged. It was ruled by a council of elders and a gathering of warriors, the role of leaders (kings) was limited. Equal distribution was maintained. All Spartans wore simple clothes, ate together, they did not recognize money.

The Spartan state waged constant wars against neighboring policies, capturing slaves, collecting tribute and gradually expanding its territory. If in Athens the labor of slaves was used to a limited extent, only in mines and workshops, then in Sparta it was the basis of the economy.

City-states of Italy. Founding of Rome

In the development of the cities of Italy and Greece, many similarities appeared. In the VIII-VI centuries. BC. the Greeks colonized the coast of southern and central Italy, built Naples and Syracuse, which became important trading centers in the Mediterranean. This had a great influence on the tribal formations inhabiting Italy. In the north of Italy (on the territory of present-day Tuscany), the Etruscans dominated. Their origin is not exactly known, it is assumed that, like the Dorians, they belonged to the "peoples of the sea" and came from the East, conquering the local population.

In 753 BC three tribes of the Latins, who lived in the region of the Tiber River, founded the city Rome.

Figure 2.4.3.

View drawing

According to legends, Rome was built by Romulus, a descendant of the Trojan hero Aeneas, who, together with his brother Remus, miraculously escaped murderers in infancy and was fed by a she-wolf.

Initially, as in Athens, the social life of Rome was built on the basis of tribal traditions. The supreme governing body was the senate (from the Latin "senex" - "old man"), which consisted of 300 people, the elders of the clans that founded the city. Ordinary members of the tribe, united in curia according to the tribal principle, could also express their opinion on the issues under discussion. The role of the supreme ruler was assigned to the elected king, who was supposed to rule in accordance with tradition and the will of the senate. From 616 BC the kings were elected from the noble Etruscan family of Tarquinius, which reflected the special role of the Etruscans in Italy.

The descendants of the founders of the city called themselves patricians ("patres" - "fathers"), they owned the lands adjacent to Rome. These lands were cultivated by separate families, in which the strict principle of patriarchy was in effect: the head of the family owned all the property, could execute or sell into slavery a delinquent member. At the same time, the lands were considered the common property of the Romans, they could not belong to outsiders. Since Rome often waged wars of conquest against neighboring tribes and city-states, the amount of land that was at the disposal of the patrician clans constantly increased.

The alien population, members of other tribes who settled in Rome, were called plebeians. They did not have the right to participate in the life of the city, although they were involved in military service in auxiliary detachments. They could ask for patronage from the patricians, becoming their "clients", and get a job in their households, be artisans, merchants.

Tribal traditions limited royal power. Under Servius Tullius (578-534 BC), reforms were carried out similar to the transformations of Solon in Athens, which dealt a serious blow to the privileges of the tribal nobility.

The entire male population, including the plebeians, was divided into five categories, depending on the property status and, accordingly, the ability to acquire light or more expensive heavy weapons. Each category was divided into centuries (hundreds), which, in case of war, acted on the battlefield. There were 193 centuries in total, the patricians fielded 19 centuries of equestrians. (To equip mounted warriors, the greatest expenses were required.) In peacetime, members of each century received the right to discuss the current affairs of the city, becoming a governing body.

The poorest Romans, unable to buy weapons, united, regardless of their number, into a centurion of "proletarians" (from the Latin "proles" - "offspring". It was understood that they were only suitable for its reproduction).

The infringement of the interests of the tribal nobility caused resistance. Tullius was killed, the new king Tarquinius the Proud canceled the reforms. However, the tyrannical nature of his reign also drew the ire of the senate. In 509 BC he was expelled. established in Rome republic . A form of government in which the supreme power belongs to a person or several persons or bodies elected by the population for a certain period. Antique r. Bourgeois r. Soviet r. (Dictionary of the Russian language Ushakov). The supreme power passed into the hands of two consuls, who were elected by the Senate from among the patricians for a year. In the outbreak of the war with the Etruscans, the Romans managed to defend their independence.

In 494 BC the plebeians, dissatisfied with their position, refused to participate in the next military campaign and left Rome fully armed. The patricians were forced to restore the order introduced by Tullius. The plebeians were given the right to elect people's tribunes to defend their interests before the senate. In particular, the tribunes could suspend the implementation of their decisions.

In 451-450 years. BC. in Rome, for the first time, uniform laws for all were adopted (before that, disputes were resolved on the basis of tribal customs and traditions). From 445 BC marriages between patricians and plebeians were allowed. A century later, the plebeians were given access to elected positions, including consular posts. At the same time, officials in Rome did not receive a salary, they covered all the expenses associated with the performance of the service at their own expense. This ensured access to power only to wealthy citizens.

The changes that took place meant that in the 5th century BC. in Rome, as earlier in Athens, a new political system of social organization developed, in which citizenship mattered more than tribal ties.

These changes contributed to the transformation of city-states into major centers of trade and crafts. They began to build up military power and began the struggle for dominance over the Mediterranean.

Struggle for control of the Mediterranean

The growing economic importance and profitability of the Mediterranean trade led to the beginning of the struggle for dominance over the Mediterranean coast. It lasted from the 5th to the 2nd century BC. and ended with the triumph of Rome, which created the world's largest power.

The modern world owes a lot ancient greece. This relatively small state had a huge impact on the development of all areas of human life. Take, for example, myths that are a reflection of human life, both in those days and today. Ideas about the world - about man, medicine, politics, art, literature - on a global scale originated precisely in Greece. This state was located in the south of the Balkan Peninsula and on the islands of the Aegean Sea. Accordingly, in such a relatively small area there was a small amount of the population, but, as Alexander the Great said, “One Greek is worth a thousand barbarians.” Greece stood out from other states - Babylonia, Egypt and Persia - and not without reason.

Map of ancient Greece

Ancient times of ancient Greece

Territory of ancient Greece It is conventionally divided into three parts: Southern, Middle and Northern. Lakonika, better known as Sparta, was located in the southern part. Athens - the main city of Greece - was located in the middle part of the state, along with such areas as Attica, Aetolia and Fokis. This part was separated from the North by almost impassable mountains and separated Athens and Thessaly, which today itself is a major historical center.

About the population of ancient Greece can be judged by the numerous examples of art that have been preserved almost in their original form - these are sculptures, frescoes and elements of painting. In any museum in the world you will find a hall of ancient Greek art, where you will see many images of tall, slender people with a perfect physique, with fair skin and dark curly hair. Ancient historians call them Pelasgians - the people who inhabited the islands of the Aegean Sea in the III millennium BC. Despite the fact that their occupations were no different from those of other ancient peoples and included cattle breeding and agriculture, it should be noted that their land was difficult to cultivate and required the use of special skills.

The peoples of Greece and their development

Those who inhabited Greece almost five thousand years ago were expelled from their lands exactly in the same millennium in which they appeared. The reason for this was the Achaeans who invaded from the north, whose state was also located on the island of Peloponnese with its capital in Mycenae. This conquest was of an epochal nature, as it marked the beginning of the Achaean civilization, which suffered the same sad fate - at the end of the 13th century BC, just as the Achaeans invaded the Greek lands, the Dorians came to this territory. Unfortunately, the conquerors destroyed almost all the cities and the entire Akhian population, although they themselves, at the same time, were at a lower level of civilization development. This fact could not but affect the culture of Ancient Greece. The most ancient writing, created by the Pelasgians, was forgotten, not to mention the fact that the construction and development of tools stopped. This period, which is deservedly called "dark", lasted neither more nor less than from the 12th to the 9th centuries AD. Among the cities, Athens and Sparta still stood out, where two antagonistic societies were located.

So, in Laconia (Sparta) the governors were two kings who ruled by passing their power by inheritance. Nevertheless, despite this, the real power was in the hands of the elders, who made laws and were engaged in judging. The love of luxury in Sparta was severely pursued, and the main task of the elders was to prevent the class stratification of society, for which each Greek family received a plot of land from the state, which they had to cultivate without the right to receive additional territories. Soon the Spartans were forbidden to engage in trade, agriculture and crafts, the slogan was proclaimed that "the occupation of every Spartan is war", which was supposed to fully provide the population of Laconica with everything necessary for life. The morals of the Spartans are eloquently evidenced by the fact that the soldiers could be expelled from the detachments only because he did not fully eat his portion of food at a common meal, which indicated that he dined on the side. Moreover, the wounded Spartan had to die on the battlefield in silence, without showing unbearable pain.

The main rival of Sparta was the current capital of Greece - Athens. This city was the center of the arts, and the people who inhabited it were the exact opposite of the rough and tough Spartans. Nevertheless, despite the ease and carelessness of life, it was here that the word "tyrant" appeared. Initially, it meant “ruler”, but when the authorities of Athens began to openly rob the population, this word acquired the connotation that it has to this day. Peace was brought to the devastated city by King Solon, a wise and kind ruler who did a lot to improve the lives of the townspeople.

The VI century brought new trials to the inhabitants of Greece - the danger came from the Persians, who quickly conquered Egypt, Media and Babylonia. In the face of the Persian state, the peoples of Greece united, forgetting about the age-old strife. Of course, the center of the army was the Spartans, who devoted their lives to military affairs. The Athenians, in turn, took up the construction of the flotilla. Darius underestimated the power of the Greeks and, having lost the very first battle, which is immortalized in history by the fact that a joyful messenger ran from Marathon to Athens to report the good news of victory, and, having covered 40 km, fell dead. It is with this event in mind that the athletes run the “marathon distance”. Xerxes, the son of Darius, having enlisted the support and help of the conquered states, nevertheless, lost a number of important battles, and abandoned any attempt to conquer Greece. Thus, Greece became the most powerful state, which gave her a number of privileges, especially Athens, which became the capital of trade in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Sparta united with Athens the next time in the face of the Macedonian conqueror Philip II, who, unlike Darius, quickly broke the resistance of the Greeks, establishing power over all areas of the state, except for Sparta, which refused to obey. Thus, the Classical period of the development of the Hellenic states ended and the flowering of Greece as part of Macedonia began. Thanks to Alexander the Great, Greeks and Macedonians by 400 BC became sovereign masters of the whole of Asia Minor. The Hellenistic era ended in 168 BC, when the large-scale conquests of the Roman Empire began.

The role of Greek civilization in the history of the development of the world

Historians agree that the cultural development of the world would not have been possible without the heritage that left us by ancient Greece. It was here that the fundamental knowledge about the universe that modern science uses was laid. The first philosophical concepts were formulated here, defining the basis for the development of the spiritual values ​​of all mankind. The Greek philosopher Aristotle laid the foundations for ideas about the material and non-material world, Greek athletes became the first champions of the first Olympic Games. Any science or field of art is somehow connected with this great ancient state - be it theater, literature, painting or sculpture. The Iliad, the main work that has survived to this day, tells very vividly and colorfully about the historical events of those times, about the way of life of the ancient Eleans, and, more importantly, is dedicated to real events. The contribution to the development of history was made by the famous Greek thinker Herodotus, whose works were devoted to the Greco-Persian wars. The contribution of Pythagoras and Archimedes to the development of mathematics cannot be overestimated. Moreover, the ancient Greeks were the authors of numerous inventions that were used primarily in the course of military operations.

The Greek theater deserves special attention, which was an open area with a round structure for the choir and a stage for artists. Such an architecture implied the creation of excellent acoustics, and the audience, sitting even in the back rows, could hear all the cues. It is noteworthy that the actors hid their faces under masks, which were divided into comic and tragic. Tremulously revering their gods, the Greeks created their statues and sculptures, which still amaze with their beauty and perfection.

Special place Ancient Greece in world ancient history makes it one of the most mysterious and amazing states in the ancient world. The progenitor of sciences and arts, Greece to this day attracts the attention of everyone who is fond of world history.

periods of ancient Greece. History of development

Early period (1050-750 BC)

Following the final, who knew writing, - the last of the glorious civilizations of the Aegean Bronze Age, mainland Greece and the islands off its coast entered an era called by some historians "Dark Age". However, strictly speaking, this term rather characterizes a break in historical information that relates to the time interval that began around 1050 BC. e., rather than the lack of knowledge or historical experience among the then population of Hellas, although writing was lost. In fact, it was precisely at this time, the time of the transition to the Iron Age, that the political, aesthetic and literary features that were then inherent in classical Hellas began to appear. Local leaders, who called themselves pariahs, ruled small, closely interconnected communities - the forerunners of the ancient Greek city-states. The next stage in the development of painted ceramics is obvious, which has become simpler in form, but at the same time stronger; her appearance, as evidenced by vessel shown at right, acquired a new elegance, harmony and proportion, which became the hallmarks of later Greek art.

Taking advantage vague memories, Trojans and others, wandering singers composed stories about gods and mere mortals, giving poetic imagery to Greek mythology. By the end of this period, the Greek-speaking tribes borrowed the alphabet from and adapted it to their language, which made it possible to write down many legends that had long been kept in oral tradition: the best among them that have come down to us are the Homeric epics " 776 BC e., is considered to be the beginning of the subsequent continuous rise of Greek culture.

Archaic period (Archaic) (750-500 BC)

In the 8th century, prompted population growth and wealth emigrants from ancient Greece, in search of new agricultural land and trading opportunities, spread throughout the Mediterranean. Greek settlers in foreign countries, however, became not just subjects cities that founded colonies, but separate, autonomous political entities. The spirit of independence that owned the settlers, as well as the need for joint action to maintain each community, gave rise to such a political unit as the policy. Throughout the Greek world, there were supposedly up to 700 similar city-states. The foreign cultures with which Hellas came into contact during this period of expansion affected the Greeks in a variety of ways.

The geometric painting of ceramics gave way to images of animals and plants in the oriental style, as well as detailed mythological scenes of a new black-figure style of vase painting (see below in the photo gallery below). Artists working with stone, clay, wood and bronze began to create monumental human sculptures. Typical for archaic statue of kouros(photo left) bears clear traces of Egyptian influence, but at the same time shows an emerging desire for symmetry, lightness and realism. In the seventh century the first truly Greek temples appear, decorated with extended friezes and Doric columns (see below in the photo gallery). Lyrical and elegiac poetry, deeply personal and emotionally rich, comes to replace the grandiloquent verses of the past. The development of trade contributes to the widespread coinage invented by the Lydians. On the mainland at the same time Sparta introduces a political system that emphasizes strict government and discipline, and as a result becomes the largest and most powerful city-state of that period. Athens on the contrary, they change and codify laws, taking care of justice and equality, open access to the ruling bodies to an increasing number of citizens and lay the foundations of democracy.

Classic period (500-323 BC)

The classical period in ancient Greece, when it is incredibly fast here blossomed arts, literature, philosophy and politics, limited by the time of wars with two foreign powers - Persia and Macedonia. Hellenes victory over the Persians gave rise to a new spirit of cooperation between the various city-states and Athens, whose fleet played a decisive role in providing a favorable turning point in the struggle against the so-called barbarians. The tribute that went from the allies to the Athenian treasury in exchange for military protection provided the Athenians with the opportunity to increase their already significant wealth and guaranteed this city political, cultural and economic supremacy throughout the Mediterranean. Virtually all citizens of Athens, regardless of financial status, were provided with access to elected office, and for the performance of relevant duties they received remuneration. At public expense, sculptors, architects and playwrights worked on works that still remain the highest creative achievement of mankind. Shown, for example, on the right is a bronze Zeus statue 213 centimeters high gives in a concentrated form an idea of ​​the skill of the artists of classical Hellas (ancient Greece), who reproduced the human body in their works with extraordinary dynamism. Greek philosophers, historians, and natural scientists left examples of rational theoretical analysis.

In 431, the long-standing enmity between Athens and Sparta resulted in a war that lasted almost 30 years and ended in the defeat of the Athenians. Decades of incessant battles have led to a weakening of political influence in many city-states, where fierce feuds have not stopped. Calculating and ambitious Macedonian King Philip II managed to profit from such chaos and soon became the master of the entire territory of ancient Greece. Philip did not manage to complete the construction of the empire, he was killed, and his son ascended the throne Alexander. Just 12 years later, Alexander the Great (Macedonian) died, but left behind a power that stretched from the Adriatic to Media (see below in the photo gallery).

Hellenistic period (323-31 BC)

On the ruins of Alexander's empire, after almost 50 years of fierce struggle for his inheritance, three major powers arose: Macedonia, Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid state stretching from present-day Turkey to Afghanistan. That strikes that from the Macedonian capital of Pella in the west to Ai-Khanum in the east, the language, literature, political institutions, fine arts, architecture and philosophy in the cities and settlements that arose as a result of Alexander's campaigns remained unconditionally Greek after his death. Subsequent kings emphasized their kinship with Hellas, especially with Alexander: the figure on the left shows Thracian silver coin, on which he is depicted with the ram horns of Zeus-Amon, a god who has roots in both the East and the West. Possessing a common language, finding, under the influence of constant trade contacts, preserving written texts and attracting numerous travelers, the Hellenistic world became more and more cosmopolitan.

Education and enlightenment flourished, libraries were created - among them was Great Library of Alexandria, where there were about half a million volumes. But the Greek ruling classes refused to admit ordinary subjects into their ranks, and vast new kingdoms were shaken everywhere by internal turmoil. Steadily weakening and impoverished Macedonia in 168 BC. e. came under dominance. One after another, the governors of the provinces in the Seleucid state declared themselves independent, forming many small states with a dynastic form of government. Of the kingdoms into which the empire of Alexander fell apart, the Ptolemaic Egypt still stood as a bastion. Cleopatra VII, the last of her line (and the only one who learned the language of the subject population), committed suicide when the Romans were victorious at Actium. However, although they managed to subjugate the entire Mediterranean, the dominance of the Latins did not mean the end of Greek influence: the Romans absorbed the culture of ancient Greece and perpetuated the Hellenic heritage in a way that the Greeks themselves could not.

To the question What is considered to be the birthplace of democracy? given by the author Artem Markin the best answer is Greece was considered and continues to be considered the birthplace of democracy. To be more precise, then the Athenian policy. It was the Greek Athenians who invented democracy.
Any invention appears only when there is a real need for it. The bow was invented when it became impossible to sneak up on the prey within the throw of a dart. So did Athens in the 8th century BC. e. it was necessary to solve the problem - how to live on. It took the Greeks about two centuries to solve this problem. And as a result, initially very cruel people, invent democracy.
The cruelty of this people was manifested in relation not only to strangers, but also to their children, for example:
the father of the family had the right to dispose of his children at their birth as he pleased;
the head of the family could sell his grown children to slave traders, etc.
"DEMOCRACY" MEANS "POWER OF THE PEOPLE".
Democratic transformations in Athens are connected with the history of Solon, a poet and legislator. Solon made his fortune in maritime trade. In Athens, he enjoyed a reputation as a man free from class prejudice and impeccably honest.
“The nobility respected him for his wealth, the poor for his honesty” (PLUTARCH)
Solon (between 640 and 635 - about 559 BC)
He was able to tame the nobility and keep the “demos” from the bloody massacre, and the citizens of Athens gradually came to equality of civil and political rights in their policy.
Only this democracy was exclusively for "citizens" - it never extended to slaves, who in the ancient city made up the majority of workers.
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Since we are talking about Greece, it is not difficult to name its highest mountain. It's definitely Olympus.

Olympus
Olympus (Greek Ὄλυμπος) is the highest mountain range in Greece (2917 m). National park.
In ancient Greek mythology, Olympus is a sacred mountain, the seat of the gods, led by Zeus.

Olympus
Well, this is the highest mountain in the solar system, volcano Olympus. Located on Mars. Altitude 27 km from the base of the mountain.

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One of the oldest cities in the world, the capital of Greece and the birthplace of democracy. This is a city of amazing fate, which has experienced the highest ups and downs for thousands of years, either becoming the center of civilization, or moving to the sidelines of history. Athens grew not according to the plans of urban planners, but due to the waves of immigrants who poured here as a result of political conflicts and disasters through the unstable Greek borders. Here is the "pearl" of Greece - the Acropolis, which is rightfully considered a masterpiece of world significance. The Parthenon, the temple of the Virgin Athena, the patroness of the city, rises majestically above the city and is clearly visible from any point in it. The theater of Dionysus, located on the southern slope of the Acropolis, was part of the sanctuary of Dionysus, now partly restored - the site of the Athenian festival.
Greece is located in southeastern Europe and occupies the southern part of the Balkan Peninsula and numerous islands, the largest of them are Crete, Rhodes, Corfu. The area of ​​the mainland and the islands is about 132 thousand km2. Greece is washed by the waters of the Aegean, Ionian and Mediterranean seas. The landscape is very diverse. On the one hand, high mountains and mountain ranges such as Pindus, Olympus (the highest mountain in Greece, 2917 m), as well as the mountains of Macedonia and Thrace. On the other hand, an endless lacy border of land framing the sea. It is this deep indentation of the coast that gives Greece that unusual beauty that makes it one and only in the Mediterranean.