Natural land areas. Natural complexes and natural areas
News and society
Nature is a complex of interconnected components that are in constant relationship with each other and depend on each other. Changes in one natural chain will necessarily lead to disturbances in related components. There is a constant exchange of resources and energy between individual participants in the natural community. The presence of certain relationships is characteristic of each specific territory. This is how natural areas are formed. They, in turn, influence human economic activity and its characteristics.
The natural areas of Russia are very diverse. This is due to the vast territory, differences in relief and climatic conditions.
Among the main natural zones of our country are steppes, semi-deserts, taiga, forests, forest-steppes, tundra, arctic desert, forest-tundra. Natural areas of Russia have a fairly large area, which stretches for thousands of kilometers. Each of them is characterized by a specific climate, soil types, vegetation and animal world, as well as the degree of moisture in the area.
The Arctic desert zone is characterized by the presence of large amounts of snow and ice all year round. The air temperature here varies between 4-2 degrees. Glaciers arise from the fall of solid precipitation. The soil is poorly developed and is located on entry level. Salt stains are observed to form in dry, windy weather. The climatic conditions of this zone also affect the nature of vegetation. Low mosses and lichens predominate here. Less common are polar poppy, saxifrage and some other plants. The fauna is also not very rich. Arctic fox, deer, owl, partridge and lemming are practically the only inhabitants of the Arctic desert.
Natural zones of Russia include the tundra zone. This is a less cold zone than the Arctic deserts. But, nevertheless, she is distinguished by cold and strong winds, which is due to the proximity of the Arctic Ocean. Frosts and snow are possible all year round. The climate of the tundra zone is humid. The soil is also very poorly developed, which affects the vegetation cover. Mostly low shrubs and trees, mosses and lichens predominate.
Natural zones of Russia are gradually replacing each other. Next comes the forest-tundra. There is already warmer weather in the summer, but the winter is cold with big amount snow. Among the plants, spruce, birch and larch predominate. During the warm period, the forest-tundra serves as a pasture for deer.
The forest-tundra is replaced by taiga. It is characterized by warmer weather and less harsh winter. The relief is characterized by the presence of a large number of reservoirs (rivers, lakes and swamps). The soil here is more favorable for flora, which is why the fauna here is numerous. The taiga is home to sable, hazel grouse, wood grouse, hare, squirrel, bear and many other species.
The semi-desert zone is the smallest in area. It typically has hot summers and harsh winters with little rainfall. It is mainly used for pasture.
The division of territory into zones also affects human activities. Russia's numerous natural and economic zones also determine its extensive economic activities.
Each zone is subdivided into smaller species. There are also transition zones, which are characterized by the climatic characteristics of each adjacent region. Therefore, each natural area is inextricably linked with the neighboring one. Disturbances occurring in a certain region of the country lead to changes not only in the climate, but also in the animal and plant world of another zone.
The characteristics of Russian natural zones imply the characteristics of each of them, but they do not have clear boundaries and the division is conditional. In addition, human activities can affect the nature and climate of the environment.
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Home > Wiki-textbook > Geography > 8th grade > Natural zones of Russia: arctic, tundra, forest-tundra, taiga, deserts
Arctic desert zone
This area is characterized by a lot of snow and ice at all times of the year. The average July temperatures here are 4-2 degrees. Precipitation falls in solid form, this contributes to the formation of glaciers. The soil-forming process is at the initial stage of development. There are almost no swamps or lakes in the Arctic deserts. Salt spots form on the soil surface in dry weather with the wind.
The vegetation here is irritated and spotty.
The annual growth of mosses and lichens is approximately 1-2mm. Among the higher plants, polar poppy, chickweed, saxifrage and others are typical in this area. The fauna is small, there are scribe, lemming, reindeer, white deer. Birds: polar owl and partridge.
Tundra zone
The tundra is a cold zone with strong winds because...
located along the seas of the Arctic Ocean. Frosts and snowfall are possible in any month. The tundra is dominated by an excessively humid climate due to the influence of the Atlantic. It is characterized by a cold, humid arctic and subarctic climate.
Low temperatures make soil formation difficult. The soils contain little humus and have a rough mechanical composition.
Tundra is a treeless zone. Mosses and lichens grow here; low-growing plants - grasses, shrubs.
Shrubs include dwarf birch and willows, which rise slightly above the snow.
The tundra is divided into three subzones - arctic tundra, typical lichen-moss tundra, southern shrub tundra.
Forest-tundra
Unlike the tunda, the summers here are warmer. The winters are cold and quite snowy. An important feature of this zone is the presence of island sparse forests.
Natural areas of the world: brief description. Table “Natural areas of the world”
They consist of Siberian spruce, larches and Siberian birch.
The meadows provide good pasture for deer in summer and autumn. Arctic foxes are common in the forest-tundra. In winter, the only birds left here are partridges and snowy owls. For about 9 months, the tundra and forest-tundra are covered with snow.
Areas with little snow are favorable for deer.
Taiga zone
Taiga is located in two climatic zones - subarctic and temperate. The average temperature in January in the west is approximately -10...-16. The July temperature is not lower than 10 degrees in the north and not higher than 20 in the south.
There are many swamps, rivers, and lakes in the taiga zone. The taiga is rich in groundwater.
Various types of soils are developed here: podzolic, taiga permafrost, swamp-podzolic.
Larch trees are common, and pine and fir forests are rare here. Small-leaved forests are common.
Siberian taiga species of animals predominate - sable, capercaillie, hazel grouse, and others. Common in the European taiga are elk, squirrel, capercaillie, and mountain hare. Taiga species in the European taiga are Brown bear, lynx, squirrel. Inhabits many insects.
Semi-desert and desert zone
They occupy a small area. Summer is hot, July temperature is from 22 to 25 degrees. Winter is cold, with little snow, January temperature is from -12 to -16. A large area is occupied by saline soils. In some places, the soils contain more humus and have a granular structure.
There are many rodents in semi-deserts: jerboas, gophers, gerbils.
Predators: wolf, fox, ferret. Birds: larks, lapwing. Reptiles: copperhead and arrowhead snakes, round-headed lizards.
Most of the deserts are used for grazing livestock.
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Geography
1 option
1. Physical geography studies... countries
A) nature
B) population
C) farm
D) transport
E) industry
2.Insert the missing statement: “The scale is 1cm - 150m... than 1:150000”
A) 10 times larger
B) 2 times larger
C) 100 times smaller
D) times smaller
E) 10 times smaller
3. The terms below: mistral, albedo, bora, anemometer - refer to the shell
A) biosphere
B) hydrosphere
C) atmosphere
D) lithosphere
E) neosphere
4.The continental crust has layers
B) 2
C) 3
D) 4
E) 5
5.The name of natural areas comes from
A) soil characteristics
B) climate features
C) terrain features
D) the predominant animal world
E) predominant vegetation cover
6.Natural area, the animal world of which is characterized by monkeys; tree trunks are covered with epiphytes - this is
A) equatorial forests
B) monsoon forests
C) hard-leaved forests
D) savannas and woodlands
E) coniferous forests
7.Plankton consists of:
A) Fish that move freely
B) Largest animals
C) Marine mammals
D) Animals that live at the bottom
E) Protozoa moving under the influence of currents
8.What natural zone is located at the foot of the mountains, if there are high-altitude zones there - eternal snow and glaciers, mountain tundra, taiga?
A) coniferous forests
B) monsoon forests
C) tundra
D) steppe
E) desert
9.Increases temperature surface waters temperate and polar latitudes current
A) Labrador
B) Californian
C) Canary
D) Kuroshio
E) North Atlantic
10. Winds dominate in the temperate zone
A) trade winds
B) stock
C) western
D) northeastern
E) southern
11.Atlantic and Indian Oceans wash the mainland
A) Eurasia
B) Africa
C) Australia
D) Antarctica
E) South America
12.The tropical zone occupies the largest area on the mainland
B) Eurasia
C) Australia
D) Antarctica
E) South America
A) West Siberian Plain
B) on the Taimyr Peninsula
C) Central Siberian Plateau
D) in northeastern Siberia
E) on the Kamchatka Peninsula
14.The highest tidal waves form in the Bay of Fundy off the coast
B) South America
C) Eurasia
D) Africa
E) Antarctica
15. The territory of Kazakhstan is located between latitudes
A) 300 - 400 N.
B) 400 – 500 S.
C) 600 – 750 N.
D) 500 – 600 S.
E) 400 - 560 N.
16. The first geological map of Kazakhstan was compiled
A) P.P. Semenov
B) Sh. Ualikhanov
C) I.V. Mushketov
D) N.A.Severtsev
E) K.I.Satpayev
17.The largest chromium deposits in Kazakhstan are being developed
A) in Altai
B) in Mugalzhary
C) in the Karatau ridge
D) on the Ustyrt plateau
E) on the Turanian plain
18. A humidification coefficient of 0.19 indicates... the territory
A) high humidity
B) humidity close to normal
C) normal hydration
D) waterlogging
E) very dry
19.Between the Alakol Basin in the north and the valley of the Ile River in the south is
B) Trans-Ili Alatau
C) Zhungar Alatau
D) Saur
E) Tarbagatai
20.On the western edge of the Western Tien Shan there is a ridge
A) Karatau
B) Ketmen
C) Ileysky Alatau
D) Shu-Ilei mountains
E) Kyrgyz Alatau
21. Natural zone in the north of Kazakhstan, gray forest and chernozem soils are
A) highlands
B) desert
C) semi-desert
D) forest-steppe
E) steppe
22.Reserve, within which the singing dune is located
A) Aksu-Zhabaglinsky
B) Nauryzym
C) Markakolsky
D) Kurgaldzhinsky
E) Almaty
23. Protected areas where human economic activity is partially permitted are called
A) nature reserves
B) reserves
C) national parks
D) natural monuments
E) dendrological parks
24.The Caspian Sea connects Kazakhstan with...
A) Armenia
B) Pakistan
C) Uzbekistan
D) Kyrgyzstan
E) Azerbaijan
25. In terms of population, among the CIS countries, Kazakhstan is inferior
A) Ukraine, Uzbekistan
B) Russia, Moldova
C) Ukraine, Moldova
D) Russia.
What are the natural areas?
Kyrgyzstan
E) Russia, Belarus
26.The increase in the share of city residents in the total population of the country is called
A) demographics
B) migration
C) mechanical movement
D) natural growth
E) urbanization
27.K production sector applies
A) public utilities
B) culture
C) education
D) agriculture
E) healthcare
28. Oil has been produced in Kazakhstan since 1899.
at the field
B) Emba
C) Dossor
D) Makat
E) Mangystau
29. Waste is used to produce nitrogen fertilizers
A) food industry
B) non-ferrous metallurgy
C) ferrous metallurgy
D) chemical industry
E) agriculture
30. Economic region of Kazakhstan, in which the industries of specialization are ferrous metallurgy and copper smelting
A) Central
B) Eastern
C) Western
D) Northern
E) Southern
31. Economic region of Kazakhstan in which all types of transport are developed
A) Central
B) Eastern
C) Western
D) Northern
E) Southern
32.The group of newly industrialized countries includes
A) China and Republic of Korea
B) Vietnam and Singapore
C) Malaysia and Libya
D) Thailand and Bangladesh
E) Malaysia and Thailand
33.The demographic crisis is typical for countries
A) Latin America
B) Western Europe
C) Australia
D) Africa
E) Asia
34.NAFTA includes countries
A) USA, Canada
B) Mexico, Venezuela
C) Argentina, Chile
D) Brazil, Mexico
E) Argentina, Uruguay
35. Pig farming is most widespread in
B) Australia
C) Asia
D) Europe
E) North America
36. Heavy-duty vehicles are produced in the cities of Belarus
A) Gomel, Lida
B) Minsk, Mozyr
C) Brest, Zhodino
D) Minsk, Zhodino
E) Soligorsk, Grodno
37. European countries located in the Alps
A) Belgium, Luxembourg
B) France, UK
C) Austria, Liechtenstein
D) Sweden, Switzerland
E) Denmark, Germany
38. Asian countries rich in forest resources
A) Saudi Arabia, Syria
B) India, Türkiye
C) Laos, Singapore
D) Indonesia, Malaysia
E) China, Pakistan
39.Industrial-agrarian country of Latin America, one of the top ten countries in the world for oil production
A) Argentina
B) Mexico
C) Colombia
D) Brazil
E) Peru
40. African countries with a monarchical form of government
A) Lesotho, Morocco
B) Swaziland, Algeria
C) Chad, Algeria
D) South Africa, Chad
E) Ethiopia, Niger
Geography
Option 2
1. The Earth comes close to the Sun:
2. The reverse direction of azimuth 255⁰ will be
3.The temperature of the lower part of the mantle reaches
4.Home driving force water cycle on the earth's surface
A) evaporation
B) condensation
C) solar energy and wind
D) pressure
E) humidity
5.Creates the necessary conditions for the development of life on Earth
A) lithosphere and stratosphere
B) atmosphere and lithosphere
C) hydrosphere and lithosphere
D) biosphere and lithosphere
E) the entire geographical envelope
6. A tree capable of storing moisture in its trunk
A) bottle
B) araucaria
D) sequoia
E) boxwood
7. The Dreyor hypothesis of continents is formulated
A) Wegener
B) Voeikov
C) Alisov
D) Herodotus
E) Baransky
8. In summer, rising air flow is typical for
A) Balkan Peninsula
B) the Hindustan Peninsula
C) Kalahari
D) Arabian Peninsula
E) Antarctica
9. Benthos makes up the flora and fauna
A) coastal parts
B) surface layers
C) the ocean floor
D) arctic latitudes
10. The subpolar geographical zone separates ... geographical zones
A) temperate and equatorial
B) equatorial and tropical
C) temperate and polar
D) temperate and tropical
E) tropical and polar
11. On the Arabian Peninsula, annual precipitation is less than ... mm
12. Japan is characterized by... climate
A) Mediterranean
B) monsoon
C) sea
D) temperate continental
E) sharply continental
13. A plant growing on the Brazilian plateau,
A) velvichia
B) Puya Raimondi
D) kebracho
14.The birthplace of rice is considered to be:
A) Latin America
B) Southern Europe
C) Central America
D) East Africa
E) Southeast Asia
15. At the mouth of the Arys River, at its confluence with the Syrdarya, there was an ancient city, from which a famous philosopher and scientist came
A) Saudakent
B) Shed
C) Koylyk
E) Otyrar
16. The first period of Sh.’s journey.
Ualikhanov included
A) the upper reaches of the Naryn River
B) Kashgaria
C) Dzhetym-Chok mountains
E) the valley of the Karasai River
18. The snow-rain type of nutrition includes the river
19. At the Zhetigarinsky deposit they produce
B) chromites
C) tungsten
E) asbestos
20. Between Saryarka and Mugalzhary there is
A) Turgai plateau
B) Trans-Ural plateau
C) General Syrt
D) Pre-Ural plateau
E) Ustyrt
21.On the left bank of the Ile (Ili) river there is a desert
A) Aral Karakum
B) Taucum
C) Kyzylkum
D) Ulken Borsyk (Big Badgers)
E) Moyynkum
22. Tersek forest is located in... reserve
A) Aksu-Zhabaglinsky
B) Korgalzhinsky
C) Markakolsk
D) Alakol
E) Nauryzym
23. A river flows out of Lake Zaisan
A) Kalzhyr
24.Compared to other industries, this industry consumes a large amount of water:
A) mechanical engineering
B) chemical industry
C) ferrous metallurgy
D) coal industry
E) petrochemical industry
25. In terms of manganese reserves, Kazakhstan ranks ... in the world
26.The construction of powerful thermal power plants gave impetus to the growth of cities
A) Zhanatas, Kentau
B) Balkhash, Alga
C) Atyrau, Uralsk
D) Ridder, Zyryanovsk
E) Aksu, Temirtau
27.Select a non-production industry from the list provided
A) trade
B) public utilities
C) telecommunications
D) construction
E) printing
28. For the first time in Kazakhstan, ferrochrome was obtained in the city
B) Aktobe
C) Shymkent
D) Ust-Kamenogorsk
E) Temirtau
29. The first oil pipeline built on the territory of Kazakhstan
A) Atyrau – Orsk
B) Uzen - Samara
C) Dossor - Rakusha
D) Mubarak – Almaty
E) Aktau-Atyrau
30. The export by an economic region or country of surplus products produced in the country or region and the import of shortage products is
A) specialization
B) concentration
C) cooperation
D) territorial division of labor
E) combination
31.The wool primary processing factory is located in the city
B) Ust-Kamenogorsk
C) Petropavlovsk
D) Pavlodar
E) Astana
32. Marine biomass used by humans is... represented by fish
33. Third largest country in the world
A) Canada
In Russia
E) Indonesia
34. In global iron ore exports, the most prominent
A) China, USA
B) Brazil, Australia
C) Brazil, Argentina
D) Australia, Jamaica
E) India, Türkiye
35. Most of the world's cultivated land is occupied by:
A) technical
B) feed
C) melons
D) cereals
E) gardening
36. In Ukraine, the centers of railway engineering are
A) Kyiv, Kharkov
B) Sumy, Poltava
C) Lviv, Zaporozhye
D) Dnepropetrovsk, Lugansk
E) Nikolaev, Kerch
37.From the list presented, select the largest cities in Great Britain
A) Aberdeen and Glasgow
B) Manchester and Birmingham
C) Edinburgh and Liverpool
D) Manchester and Liverpool
E) Belfast and Glasgow
38. Multinational country:
A) Saudi Arabia
B) Japan
C) Pakistan
D) Republic of Korea
39.Mexico ranks first in the world in reserves
A) silver
40.The country that ranks first in the world in terms of bauxite reserves,
A) Brazil
B) Jamaica
C) Australia
E) Morocco
1. Indicate the main natural zones of the Earth.
Tundra, taiga, deciduous forest, meadows (savanna), deserts and shrubs, steppe and forest-steppe, tropical rainforests.
2. What determines the distribution of natural areas on Earth?
Natural areas are formed by the distribution of heat and moisture across the planet.
Relief and distance from the ocean affect the location of the plots and their width.
3. Give a brief description of the tundra.
This natural area is located in the polar zone (mainly in the permafrost), where the air temperature is quite low. The flora includes mainly plants with poorly developed root systems: mosses, lichens, shrubs, and dwarf trees. The tundra is home to real, small predators, numerous migratory birds.
fourth
What trees form the basis of secret, mixed and broad-leaved forests?
Basis of thiago-conifers (pine, spruce, fir, larch...)
For mixed forests Characterized by a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees.
Broad-belt forests consist of deciduous trees (oak, hazelnut, beech, linden, maple, chestnut, gabard, bar, ash, etc.).
fifths
What do all the grassy plains on our planet have in common?
It is characterized by low precipitation and constant high air temperatures. The savanna is characterized by a dry age, during which it dries out and animals turn into ponds. The vegetation is mostly herbaceous, trees are rare. Savannah is characterized by many herbivores and predators.
sixth
Give a brief description of the desert.
Deserts have very low humidity, desert flora and fauna are adapted to this difficult situation. Animals have long periods of time without water, waiting during the driest months in a state of dormancy, many leading to nocturnal life.
Natural territories of Russia: map, names, geographical objects and table
Many plants can retain moisture, reduce evaporation much of the time, and have extensive root systems that allow for large amounts of moisture to be collected.
In general, flora and fauna are very limited. In plants they are mainly not herbs, animals - reptiles (snakes, lizards) and small rodents.
7. Why are there trees in the steppe, savanna and desert?
In savannas, steppes and deserts there is very little rainfall, there is simply not enough water for trees.
eighths
Why is the rainforest richest in rich communities?
There is always high temperature and humidity. These conditions are especially favorable for plants and animals. The topsoil is very fertile.
9. Using examples, demonstrate that the distribution of natural areas on Earth depends on the distribution of heat and moisture.
Natural areas are determined by the distribution of heat and moisture in the world: high temperatures and low humidity are characteristic of the equatorial desert, high temperatures and humidity are characteristic of equatorial and tropical forests.
Natural areas extend from west to east, with no clear boundaries between them.
For example, savannas, where the humidity is no longer sufficient for the growth of forests in the cloud, in the north and away from the equator, where most of the year was not dominated by the equatorial and tropical air mass, and the rainy season lasted less than 6 months.
10. What are the characteristics listed in the list of natural features?
A) maximum diversity of species;
Tropical rainforest.
B) dominates in herbaceous plants;
Savannah.
B) a lot of moss, leaves and trees;
Tundra.
D) a number of coniferous species of some species.
Taiga.
11. Analyze the pictures on pages 116-117 of the textbook. Is there a connection between the color of animals and their habitat (natural area)?
For example, striped tiger successfully hides in the yellow grass, preparing to attack. Polar bear and sand are practically invisible against the background of snow.
To protect predators, animals evolved color to hide.
Examples: jerboa, deer, green frog and many others. another
12. In what natural areas do these organisms live?
Scarlet birch - tundra.
Sloth is a tropical rainforest.
Kedrovka - taiga.
Zebra - savannah.
Oak is a broad forest.
Jeyran is a desert.
White owl - tundra.
13th
Using the map on pages 118-119 of the textbook, the name of natural areas located on the territory of our country. Which of them occupy the largest territory?
Russian territory has a long stretch from north to south, the topography is mostly flat. Such large plains successively represent the following natural regions: Arctic desert, tundra, tundra, forest, forest, desert, semi-desert, subtropics.
There is a high zone in the mountains. A large territory occupies taiga, steppe, mixed forest and tundra.
Belts. At the current stage of development of earthly nature, the following main planetary belts are distinguished:
1) equatorial hot and humid,
2) tropical hot and dry,
3) temperate in the northern hemisphere, warm with a large amplitude of humidity across regions, in the southern - with an oceanic climate (it is advisable to divide the usually distinguished temperate zone into two: temperate and boreal);
4) boreal cool and damp;
5) polar frosty and damp.
Collections of homogeneous natural formations, stretched from west to east perpendicular to the Earth’s rotation axis, have long been called zones in science - climatic, soil, plant.
The following zones are distinguished in the northern hemisphere: ice, tundra, coniferous forests or taiga, deciduous forests, forest-steppe, steppe, desert temperate, subtropical forests, tropical desert, savanna, equatorial forests.
Between the listed zones, transitional zones are distinguished: forest-tundra between tundra and forest, semi-desert between steppe and desert, etc.
Each zone is divided into subzones.
Zones and subzones were named after the vegetation cover of the land, since vegetation is the most striking indicator or indicator of the natural complex.
1. Equatorial belt.
2. Subequatorial belts
3. Tropical zones
4. Subtropical zones
5. Northern temperate zone.
6. Southern temperate zone
7. Northern boreal belt
8. Northern cold subarctic, or subpolar, belt.
9. Southern boreal belt.
10. Polar belts, or zones of eternal frost
11. Altitudinal zone
1.Equatorial belt.
The geographic or landscape equatorial belt of land occupies a small area. Two main types of landscapes predominate in the Hylaia:
a) forest flooded and swampy and
b) forest unflooded.
On the periphery of the equatorial belt, forests are already deciduous-evergreen, transitional to subequatorial.
2. Subequatorial belts.
There are two of them: one in the northern, the other in the southern hemispheres.
The area of the subequatorial belts is larger than that of the equatorial belt, and, despite the appearance of the transitional nature of the belt, its nature is deeply original.
Many features of nature are inherited at least from the Paleogene.
IN subequatorial belt two natural zones:
a) subequatorial forests
b) savanna.
Subequatorial forests in the form of a narrow zone adjoin the hyla. They are variably wet and deciduous.
The zonal type of savannah landscape is characterized by a combination of grassy areas with individual trees, groups of trees, small forests or thickets of bushes.
Depending on the duration of the dry period, the savannah zone is divided into three subzones:
1) wet savannas and savanna forests, located near the Hylea belt;
2) dry savannas with open forests or individual trees, occupying the middle areas of the belt;
3) desertified savannas and shrubs adjacent to tropical desert zones.
3.Tropical zones .
Tropical zones are latitudes where hot and usually dry air prevails on both continents and oceans, forming in tropical anticyclones.
The northern tropical zone on the continents extends from 10′ N. w. near the Gulf of Aden up to 34′ n. w. in the upper Indus basin - 24′ from north to south and 120′ from west to east. The southern one, since the continents wedge out to the south, is somewhat smaller.
Its southern border coincides everywhere with 30′ S. latitude, northern in Africa reaches 16′ S. sh.; belt width 14′, length on land 85′.
The seasons of the year in the northern and southern zones are antichronic.
4. Subtropical zones.
Subtropics are characterized by the presence of tropical air in these latitudes in summer and temperate air in winter. These are not transitional, but independent belts. The location of regions of subtropical nature, the climate and landscape features of each of them also depend on the topography of the continents - the lithogenic basis for the development of landscapes and interaction in the ocean-atmosphere-continent system.
The average parallel of subtropical zones is 35′s.
w. and Yu. W. These are the axes of the Mediterranean fracture zones of the earth's crust in both hemispheres.
5.Northern temperate zone . In mid latitudes globe the lithosphere is antisymmetric relative to the equatorial plane: the huge continents of the northern hemisphere correspond to a continuous ocean ring in the southern hemisphere.
The northern temperate zone on land stretches from Ireland to Kamchatka by 1750 and from Alaska to Newfoundland by 1000.
The southernmost point of this belt lies in China at 330N latitude. and the northernmost one is on the Scandinavian Peninsula at almost 700 N latitude, i.e. the length is almost 37 degrees.
In the southern hemisphere, only the tip of South America, half of Tasmania and part of the South Island of New Zealand reach temperate latitudes.
The northern belt is characterized by the greatest diversity of zonal landscapes on Earth.
In its northern reaches, the taiga turns into forest-tundra, and in the southern reaches, the temperate deserts of Central Asia border on subtropical deserts. The mode of heat and moisture, all components are so different that they allow us to divide this belt into two:
1) moderate
2) boreal.
The first includes zones of deserts, semi-deserts, steppe, forest-steppe and mixed forests in the continental sectors of Eurasia and North America and deciduous forests in the oceanic ones.
6. The southern temperate zone is antisymmetrical in megarelief to the northern one: it is almost entirely located on the ocean.
Its land area is negligible. Only on the western coast of the Andes, open to sea air masses of westerly transport and cyclones, do oceanic plants constantly grow rain forests.
7.Northern boreal belt. In the northern part of the middle latitudes, across the vast expanses of Eurasia and North America, stretches the most extensive zone on Earth - the zone of coniferous forests, which received the Siberian name of taiga. Its southern border at Lake Superior reaches 47′ N.
sh., and the northern one on the Kola Peninsula rises to 68′ N. w. Even further north - to the lake
There are three main landscapes in the boreal zone:
1) coniferous forests,
2) swamp and
3) water meadows.
The southern temperate and boreal zones are mainly oceanic.
8. Northern cold subarctic, or subpolar, belt.
It occupies the northern periphery of Eurasia and America. Its southern boundary follows the coastline (due to summer warming of the land) and is also influenced by warm and cold ocean currents.
There is little solar heat.
The southern boundary of the belt approximately corresponds to the 10′ isotherm, and the northern 0′C in July. Already at a shallow depth (about 30 cm), the soil is captured by permafrost. There is little precipitation - from 300 to 100 mm, evaporation is even less, atmospheric humidification is excessive - up to 150%.
Tree plantations cannot grow under these conditions; tundra landscapes are typical.
Tundra is a complex of treeless moss, moss-shrub and lichen formations that have adapted to climatic and soil pessimism. In the northern reaches, soils and tundra landscapes form only in patches; This is already a polar desert.
In the tundra zone there are three types of landscapes: tundra, swamp and floodplain meadows.
9. Southern boreal belt.
In the southern hemisphere, in subpolar latitudes, the ocean reigns supreme. Tundra landscapes occur sporadically on sparsely scattered islands and do not form zones. On the Falkland Islands (51 - 52′ S) there is stony-lichen tundra with thickets of birch and willow; South Georgia (54 - 55′ S) lies on the border of the Antarctic ice zone.
10. Polar belts, or zones of eternal frost.
The northern and southern polar belts are opposite in megarelief - the first is continental, the second is oceanic. However, their climates have many common features.
There are three types of landscapes on land in the Arctic belt:
1) island glaciers,
2) polar deserts (on the Wrangel, Novosibirsk, Severnaya Zemlya and Canadian Archipelago) and
3) arctic tundra, usually spotted on the border with the tundra zone.
11.Altitudinal zone . In mountainous countries, horizontal natural land zones are replaced by altitudinal zones, and in the hills the landscapes vary within two adjacent zones.
The vertical zone always begins with the horizontal zone in which the mountainous country is located.
Above the belt, they change generally in the same way as the horizontal zones, up to the region of polar snows. In this case, of course, belts appear that are similar to such zones, the conditions of which cannot be repeated in the mountains.
The ratio of territories falling on different horizontal geographical zones and landscapes of mountainous countries is best shown by comparing the sizes of areas of the main types of soil, since the vegetation cover has been significantly changed by human activity.
6. The Earth's lithosphere as a condition for the development of tourism.
Endogenous processes: volcanism, earthquakes, main landforms.
Lithosphere(from the Greek λίθος - stone and σφαίρα - ball, sphere) - the hard shell of the Earth.
Blocks of the lithosphere - lithospheric plates - move along a relatively plastic asthenosphere. The section of geology on plate tectonics is devoted to the study and description of these movements.
Endogenous processes(A.
endogenous processes; n. endogene Vorgange; f. processus endogenes, processus endogeniques; And. processos endogenos) - geological processes, associated with the energy arising in the bowels of the Earth. Endogenous processes include tectonic movements of the earth's crust, magmatism, metamorphism, and seismic activity.
The main sources of energy for endogenous processes are heat and the redistribution of material in the interior of the Earth according to density (gravitational differentiation).
Volcanoes- geological formations on the surface of the Earth's crust or the crust of another planet, where magma comes to the surface, forming lava, volcanic gases, rocks (volcanic bombs) and pyroclastic flows.
Among the various classifications, general types of eruptions are distinguished:
Hawaiian type - emissions of liquid basaltic lava, often forming lava lakes, which should resemble scorching clouds or red-hot avalanches.
Hydroexplosive type - eruptions that occur in shallow conditions of oceans and seas are characterized by the formation of a large amount of steam that occurs when hot magma and sea water come into contact.
After eruptions, when the activity of the volcano either stops forever, or it “dormants” for thousands of years, processes associated with the cooling of the magma chamber and called post-volcanic processes persist on the volcano itself and its surroundings.
These include fumaroles, thermal baths, and geysers.
Earthquakes- tremors and vibrations of the Earth's surface caused by natural causes (mainly tectonic processes), or (sometimes) artificial processes (explosions, filling of reservoirs, collapse of underground cavities in mine workings).
Small tremors can also be caused by the rise of lava during volcanic eruptions.
About a million earthquakes occur throughout the Earth each year, but most are so small that they go unnoticed. Really strong earthquakes, capable of causing widespread destruction, occur on the planet about once every two weeks. Most of them fall on the bottom of the oceans, and therefore are not accompanied by catastrophic consequences (if an earthquake under the ocean does not occur without a tsunami).
Relief consists of repeatedly repeating and alternating individual relief forms, each of which consists of relief elements: faces or surfaces, and edges (the intersection of two faces).
Based on the magnitude of the slope, they distinguish subhorizontal surfaces(with tilt angles up to 2 degrees) and slopes(with tilt angles greater than 2 degrees). Surfaces can be smooth, concave, convex.
The edges of the relief gradually transform into one another through slope bends.
Landforms can be positive(protruding relative to some horizontal level) or negative(in depth relative to this level).
Also distinguished accumulative landforms, formed due to the accumulation of material, and denudation forms formed due to the removal of material.
Morphometric classification of relief.
Depending on the size there are: planetary forms, megaforms, macroforms, mesoforms, microforms and nanoforms of relief.
Planetary landforms. They occupy areas of hundreds of thousands and millions of km2. The total number of planetary landforms is small. They are divided into: continents, ocean floor, transition zones, mid-ocean ridges.
Mega landforms occupy areas of the order of hundreds or tens of thousands of km2.
These are large depressions and mountain systems.
Macroforms are components megaforms. The areas occupied by these forms amount to hundreds, less often thousands, of km2. Macroforms include individual ridges in a mountain system.
Mesoforms usually several tens of km2.
These can be river valleys, large ravines, ravines, small mountain ranges.
Microforms represent irregularities that complicate the surface of mesoforms.
These are, for example, karst sinkholes, erosion potholes, and coastal ramparts.
Nanorelief forms are called very small irregularities that complicate the surfaces of macro, meso and micro relief.
These are meadow hummocks, marmots, molehills, small erosion grooves, ripple marks on the bottom of reservoirs or on the surface of aeolian forms.
Despite the wide variety of unevenness of the earth's surface, we can distinguish main landforms: mountain, basin, ridge, hollow, saddle.
A mountain (or hill) is a cone-shaped hill.
Natural areas of Russia
It has a characteristic point - the top, side slopes (or slopes) and a characteristic line - the line of the sole. The sole line is the line where the side slopes merge with the surrounding terrain. On the slopes of the mountain there are sometimes horizontal areas called ledges.
The summit is the highest point in altitude.
A basin is a cone-shaped depression.
The basin has a characteristic point - the bottom, side slopes (or slopes) and a characteristic line - the edge line. The edge line is the line where the side slopes merge with the surrounding area.
A ridge is an elongated hill that gradually decreases in one direction.
It has characteristic lines: one watershed line formed by the side slopes when they merge at the top, and two lines of the sole.
A hollow is an elongated and gradually descending depression open at one end. The hollow has characteristic lines: one drainage line (or thalweg line), formed by the side slopes when they merge at the bottom, and two edge lines.
A saddle is a small depression between two neighboring mountains; as a rule, a saddle is the beginning of two valleys descending in opposite directions.
The saddle has one characteristic point - the saddle point, located at the lowest point of the saddle.
There are varieties of the listed basic forms, for example, varieties of a hollow: valley, ravine, canyon, hole, beam, etc. Sometimes varieties of basic forms characterize the relief features of a particular area, for example, in the mountains there are peaks - pointed mountain peaks, gorges, gorges , cheeks, plateau, pass, etc.
The top of the mountain, the bottom of the basin, and the saddle point are characteristic points of the relief; the watershed line of a ridge, the drainage line of a ravine, the line of the base of a mountain or ridge, the edge line of a basin or ravine are characteristic lines of the relief.
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Report: The concept of natural areas and geographical landscapes. Zoning and azonality
Natural zones of the globe, their brief characteristics
The great Russian scientist V.V. At the end of the last century, Dokuchaev substantiated the planetary law of geographic zoning - a natural change in the components of nature and natural complexes when moving from the equator to the poles. Zoning is primarily due to the unequal (latitudinal) distribution of solar energy (radiation) over the Earth's surface, associated with the spherical shape of our planet, as well as different amounts of precipitation.
Natural areas and their main characteristics. Natural areas and their main features
Depending on the latitudinal ratio of heat and moisture, the law of geographic zonation is subject to weathering processes and exogenous relief-forming processes; zonal climate, surface waters of land and ocean, soil cover, vegetation and fauna.
The largest zonal divisions of the geographic envelope are geographic zones.
They stretch, as a rule, in the latitudinal direction and, in essence, coincide with climatic zones. Geographic zones differ from each other in temperature characteristics, as well as in the general characteristics of atmospheric circulation.
On land the following geographical zones are distinguished:
Equatorial - common to the northern and southern hemispheres; - subequatorial, tropical, subtropical and temperate - in each hemisphere; - subantarctic and antarctic zones - in the southern hemisphere.
Belts with similar names have been identified in the World Ocean. The zonality in the ocean is reflected in changes from the equator to the poles in the properties of surface waters (temperature, salinity, transparency, wave intensity, etc.), as well as in changes in the composition of flora and fauna.
Inside geographical zones Natural zones are distinguished based on the ratio of heat and moisture.
The names of the zones are given according to the type of vegetation that predominates in them. For example, in the subarctic zone these are tundra and forest-tundra zones; in the temperate zone - forest zones (taiga, mixed coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests), zones of forest-steppes and steppes, semi-deserts and deserts.
Natural area(Greek
zone - belt), physiographic zone- part of a geographical zone with homogeneous climatic conditions.
Geographical zone- the largest zonal division of the geographical envelope encircling the globe in the latitudinal direction.
Geographic zones correspond to climate zones. Each geographical zone is characterized by the integrity of climatic conditions.
The globe is divided into the following geographical zones and zones:
- Northern polar zone - north of the Arctic Circle
- arctic belt
- Northern Temperate Zone - between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic of Cancer
- southern temperate zone
- Hot zone - between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
- southern tropical zone
- equatorial belt
- northern tropical zone
- South Temperate Zone - between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle
- northern temperate zone
- South Polar Zone - south of the Antarctic Circle
- Antarctic belt
The following belts are also distinguished at the borders:
- two subequatorial (northern and southern)
- two subtropical (northern and southern)
- subarctic
- subantarctic
In the Hot Zone, the sun is at its zenith at least once a year - at the borders of the tropics this occurs during the summer solstice, and at the equator during the equinoxes.
It is the hottest part of the earth and has two annual seasons: dry and wet. The hot zone includes most of Africa, south india, southern Asia, Indonesia, New Guinea, northern Australia, Central America and northern South America.
In the two Temperate Zones the sun is never directly at its zenith and the climate is temperate (mild), slowly changing from warm to cold. These zones have four seasons - spring, summer, autumn and winter.
The North Temperate Zone includes Great Britain, Europe, northern Asia and North America. The South Temperate Zone includes southern Australia, New Zealand, southern South America and South Africa.
In the two Polar zones there is such a phenomenon as a polar day and a polar night - at the borders of the zones during the solstice the sun does not rise for 24 hours, while at the poles the day “lasts one year” - six months of sunlight and six months of night.
The polar zones are the coldest parts of the earth, covered with ice and snow. The North Polar Zone (Arctic) includes northern Canada and Alaska, Greenland, northern Scandinavia, northern Russia and Arctic ice. The South Polar Zone (Antarctica) consists of the continent of Antarctica; the other closest continents are the southern cape of Chile and Argentina, as well as New Zealand.
Natural areas take their name from their native vegetation and other geographic features.
The zones naturally change from the equator to the poles and from the oceans deep into the continents; have similar temperature and moisture conditions that determine homogeneous soils, vegetation, fauna and other components of the natural environment. Natural zones are one of the stages of physical-geographical zoning.
Natural zones are expressed on land and in the ocean, where they appear less clearly. Within the zone, according to the predominance of landscapes of one type or another, physiographic subzones are distinguished.
Every schoolchild knows what a natural area is, and those who have forgotten this concept can become familiar with it by reading this article.
Natural areas: definition and types
The globe consists of all kinds of natural complexes, localized in different climatic zones. Despite the diversity of landscapes, plants and animals, individual areas of the Earth are similar to each other. They are combined into a separate group of natural zones. This is the largest gradation of the entire natural complex on the planet.
Natural areas and their features
Natural areas are located according to temperature and humidity parameters adapted to certain parameters. They mainly occupy certain latitudes, but the specific area depends on the distance to the ocean and the surrounding topography. The exception is mountain natural zones, the characteristics of which are influenced by the altitude of localization. Closer to the top, the temperature becomes lower, so the zonation is located in the direction from the equator to the poles. Below there is a natural complex similar to that on the plain. The higher the mountain range, the more northern landscapes are localized at the top.
What is a natural area that is not located on land? The ocean also contains a natural complex that differs in its climatic location and depth. Its boundaries are vague compared to the land.
Natural areas of the tropics and subtropics, deserts
The forests of the equator and tropics, located in Africa, South America and Asia, are characterized by high humidity and temperature. What is a natural area in these areas of the globe? This is a complex of evergreen trees with a pronounced multi-layered structure (from small shrubs to giant trees). The accelerated circulation of substances leads to the formation of a superfertile soil layer, which is quickly consumed. In the tropics and subtropics, there is a zone of dry forests where trees shed their leaves during the hot season.
The description of the natural zone includes savannas - a transition zone from tropical forests to northern landscapes with pronounced open forests, constantly high temperatures and infrequent precipitation. This complex is characterized by a dry period, as a result of which it occurs before reservoirs.
Evergreen forests in Mediterranean climates are predominantly composed of plants with hard leaves. There are many coniferous trees and mild winters are typical. Most of the animal species in this natural area are on the verge of extinction.
Tundra and forest-tundra occupy the territory of the subpolar and polar zones. The vegetation is low-growing with a shallow root system due to poor soils, there are many mosses and lichens, mainly migratory birds live, most of the territory is covered with permafrost.
Animals in the Arctic desert mainly live in water; during the warm period, which lasts several months, birds arrive. This is what a natural area in the northern hemisphere is.
At the core geographical zonation lies in climate change, and above all differences in solar heat input. The largest territorial units of the zonal division of the geographical envelope are geographical zones.
Natural areas – natural complexes occupying large areas, characterized by the dominance of one zonal type of landscape. They are formed mainly under the influence of climate - the distribution of heat and moisture, their ratio. Each natural zone has its own type of soil, vegetation and animal life.
The appearance of the natural area is determined type of vegetation cover . But the nature of the vegetation depends on climatic conditions - thermal conditions, moisture, lighting.
As a rule, natural zones are extended in the form of wide stripes from west to east. There are no clear boundaries between them; the zones gradually transform into one another. The latitudinal location of natural zones is disrupted by the uneven distribution of land and ocean, relief, and distance from the ocean.
For example, in temperate latitudes In North America, natural zones are located in the meridional direction, which is due to the influence of the Cordillera, which prevents the passage of moist winds from the Pacific Ocean into the interior of the continent. Eurasia contains almost all the zones of the Northern Hemisphere, but their width is not the same. For example, the zone of mixed forests gradually narrows from west to east as it moves away from the ocean and the climate becomes more continental. In the mountains, natural areas change with altitude - high-risezonality . Altitudinal zonation is due to climate change with upward movement. The set of altitudinal zones in the mountains depends on the geographical position of the mountains themselves, which determines the nature of the lower zone, and the height of the mountains, which determines the nature of the uppermost altitudinal zone for these mountains. The higher the mountains and the closer they are to the equator, the more altitude zones they have.
The location of altitudinal zones is also influenced by the direction of the ridges relative to the sides of the horizon and prevailing winds. Thus, the southern and northern slopes of the mountains may differ in the number of altitude zones. As a rule, there are more of them on the southern slopes than on the northern ones. On slopes exposed to wet winds, the nature of the vegetation will be different from the vegetation on the opposite slope.
The sequence of changes in altitudinal zones in the mountains practically coincides with the sequence of changes in natural zones on the plains. But in the mountains, belts change faster. There are natural complexes that are characteristic only of mountains, for example, subalpine and alpine meadows.
Natural land areas
Evergreen tropical and equatorial forests
Evergreen tropical and equatorial forests are located in the equatorial and tropical zones of South America, Africa and the islands of Eurasia. The climate is humid and hot. The air temperature is constantly high. Red-yellow ferrallitic soils are formed, rich in iron and aluminum oxides, but poor in nutrients. Dense evergreen forests are a source of large amounts of plant litter. But organic matter entering the soil does not have time to accumulate. They are absorbed by numerous plants and washed out by daily precipitation into the lower soil horizons. Equatorial forests are characterized by many layers.
The vegetation is represented mainly by woody forms, forming multi-tiered communities. Characterized by high species diversity, the presence of epiphytes (ferns, orchids), and lianas. The plants have hard, leathery leaves with devices that remove excess moisture (drips). The fauna is represented by a huge variety of forms - consumers of rotting wood and leaf litter, as well as species living in the crowns of trees.
Savannas and woodlands
Natural areas with characteristic herbaceous vegetation (mainly cereals) in combination with individual trees or groups of trees and bushes. They are located north and south of the equatorial forest zones southern continents in tropical zones. The climate is characterized by more or less long dry periods and high air temperatures throughout the year. In savannas, red ferrallitic or red-brown soils are formed, which are richer in humus than in equatorial forests. Although nutrients are washed out of the soil during the wet season, humus accumulates during the dry season.
The vegetation is dominated by herbaceous vegetation with isolated groups of trees. Umbrella crowns are characteristic, life forms that allow plants to store moisture (bottle-shaped trunks, succulents) and protect themselves from overheating (pubescence and waxy coating on the leaves, the arrangement of the leaves with their edges facing the sun's rays). The animal world is characterized by an abundance of herbivores, mainly ungulates, large predators, and animals that process plant litter (termites). With distance from the equator in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, the duration of the dry period in savannas increases, and the vegetation becomes more and more sparse.
Deserts and semi-deserts
Deserts and semi-deserts are located in tropical, subtropical and temperate climate zones. The desert climate is characterized by extremely low rainfall throughout the year.
The daily amplitudes of air temperature are large. They vary quite a lot in temperature: from hot tropical deserts to temperate deserts. All deserts are characterized by the development of desert soils, poor in organic matter, but rich in mineral salts. Irrigation allows them to be used for agriculture.
Soil salinization is widespread. The vegetation is sparse and has specific adaptations to the arid climate: the leaves are turned into thorns, the root system greatly exceeds the above-ground part, many plants are able to grow on saline soils, bringing salt to the surface of the leaves in the form of plaque. There is a great variety of succulents. Vegetation is adapted to either “catch” moisture from the air, or to reduce evaporation, or both. The fauna is represented by forms that can do without water for a long time (store water in the form of fat deposits), travel long distances, and survive the heat by going into holes or hibernating.
Many animals lead night look life.
Hard-leaved evergreen forests and shrubs
Natural zones are located in subtropical zones in a Mediterranean climate with dry, hot summers and wet, mild winters. Brown and red-brown soils are formed.
The plant cover is represented by coniferous and evergreen forms with leathery leaves covered with a waxy coating, pubescence, usually with a high content of essential oils. This is how plants adapt to dry, hot summers. The fauna has been greatly exterminated; but herbivorous and leaf-eating forms, many reptiles, and birds of prey are characteristic.
Steppes and forest-steppes
Natural complexes characteristic of temperate zones. Here, in a climate with cold, often snowy winters and warm, dry summers, the most fertile soils are formed - chernozems. The vegetation is predominantly herbaceous, in typical steppes, prairies and pampas - cereal, in dry varieties - wormwood. Almost everywhere, natural vegetation has been replaced by agricultural crops. The fauna is represented by herbivorous forms, among which ungulates have been greatly exterminated; mainly rodents and reptiles, which are characterized by a long period of winter dormancy, and birds of prey have been preserved.
Broadleaf and mixed forests
Broad-leaved and mixed forests grow in temperate zones in climate conditions with sufficient moisture and periods of low, sometimes negative temperatures. The soils are fertile, brown forest (under broad-leaved forests) and gray forest (under mixed forests). Forests, as a rule, are formed by 2-3 species of trees with a shrub layer and well-developed herbaceous cover. The fauna is diverse, clearly divided into tiers, represented by forest ungulates, predators, rodents, and insectivorous birds.
Taiga
Taiga is widespread in the temperate latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere in a wide band in a climate with short warm summers, long and harsh winters, sufficient precipitation and normal, sometimes excessive moisture.
In the taiga zone, under conditions of abundant moisture and relatively cool summers, intensive washing of the soil layer occurs, and little humus is formed. Under its thin layer, as a result of washing the soil, a whitish layer is formed, which appearance looks like ash. Therefore, such soils are called podzolic. The vegetation is represented by various types of coniferous forests in combination with small-leaved trees.
The tiered structure is well developed, which is also characteristic of the animal world.
Tundra and forest-tundra
Distributed in subpolar and polar climate zones. The climate is harsh, with a short and cold growing season and long and harsh winters. With little precipitation, excess moisture develops. The soils are peat-gley, with a layer of permafrost underneath. The vegetation cover is represented mainly by grass-lichen communities, with shrubs and dwarf trees. The fauna is unique: large ungulates and predators are common, nomadic and migratory forms are widely represented, especially migratory birds that spend only the nesting period in the tundra. There are practically no burrowing animals, and few grain-eaters.
Formation of natural areas
A natural zone is a natural complex with uniform temperatures, moisture, similar soils, flora and fauna. A natural area is called according to the type of vegetation. For example, taiga, deciduous forests.
The main reason for the heterogeneity of the geographic envelope is the uneven redistribution of solar heat on the Earth's surface.
In almost every climatic zone of land, the oceanic parts are moistened more than the internal, continental ones. And this depends not only on the amount of precipitation, but also on the ratio of heat and moisture. The warmer it is, the more moisture that falls with precipitation evaporates. The same amount of moisture can lead to excess moisture in one zone and insufficient moisture in another.
Rice. 1. Swamp
Thus, the annual precipitation amount of 200 mm in the cold subarctic zone is excessive moisture, which leads to the formation of swamps (see Fig. 1).
And in hot tropical zones it is sharply insufficient: deserts are formed (see Fig. 2).
Rice. 2. Desert
Due to differences in the amount of solar heat and moisture, natural zones are formed within geographic zones.
Patterns of placement
There is a clear pattern in the distribution of natural zones on the earth's surface, which is clearly visible on the map of natural zones. They extend in the latitudinal direction, replacing each other from north to south.
Due to the heterogeneity of the relief of the earth's surface and moisture conditions in different parts of the continents, natural zones do not form continuous strips parallel to the equator. More often they change in the direction from the coasts of the oceans to the interior of the continents. In the mountains, natural zones replace each other from the foothills to the peaks. This is where the altitudinal zone appears.
Natural zones are also formed in the World Ocean: from the equator to the poles, the properties of surface waters, the composition of vegetation and fauna change.
Rice. 3. Natural areas of the world
Features of the natural zones of the continents
In the same natural zones on different continents, the flora and fauna have similar features.
However, in addition to climate, other factors also influence the distribution of plants and animals: geological history continents, relief, people.
The unification and separation of continents, changes in their topography and climate in the geological past became the reason that different species of animals and plants live in similar natural conditions, but on different continents.
For example, African savannas are characterized by antelopes, buffalos, zebras, and African ostriches, and in South American savannas several species of deer and an ostrich-like animal are common. flightless bird rhea.
On every continent there are endemics - both plants and animals that are unique to that continent. For example, kangaroos are found only in Australia, and polar bears are found only in the Arctic deserts.
Geofocus
The Sun heats the spherical surface of the Earth unequally: the areas above which it stands high receive the most heat.
Above the poles, the rays of the Sun only glide over the Earth. The climate depends on this: hot at the equator, harsh and cold at the poles. The main features of the distribution of vegetation and fauna are also associated with this.
Moist evergreen forests are located in narrow stripes and spots along the equator. “Green Hell” - this is what many travelers of past centuries who visited here called these places. Tall multi-tiered forests stand like a solid wall, under the thick crowns of which there is constantly darkness, monstrous humidity, constant high temperatures, there is no change of seasons, and rainfalls regularly fall with an almost continuous stream of water. The forests of the equator are also called permanent rain forests. The traveler Alexander Humboldt called them “hyleia” (from the Greek hyle - forest). Most likely, this is what wet forests looked like Carboniferous period with giant ferns and horsetails.
The rainforests of South America are called “selvas” (see Fig. 4).
Rice. 4. Selva
Savannas are a sea of grasses with rare islands of trees with umbrella crowns (see Fig. 5). Vast areas of these amazing natural communities are located in Africa, although there are savannas in South America, Australia, and India. A distinctive feature of savannas is the alternation of dry and wet seasons, which take about six months, replacing each other. The fact is that subtropical and tropical latitudes, where savannas are located, are characterized by a change of two different air masses– wet equatorial and dry tropical. Significantly influence the climate of savannas monsoon winds bringing seasonal rains. Because these landscapes are located between the very wet natural zones of equatorial forests and the very dry zones of deserts, they are constantly influenced by both. But moisture is not present long enough in savannas for multi-tiered forests to grow there, and arid ones “ winter periods"in 2-3 months they do not allow the savannah to turn into a harsh desert.
Rice. 5. Savannah
The natural taiga zone is located in the north of Eurasia and North America (see Fig. 6). On the North American continent it stretches from west to east for more than 5 thousand km, and in Eurasia, starting on the Scandinavian Peninsula, it spread to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The Eurasian taiga is the largest continuous forest zone on Earth. It occupies more than 60% of the territory of the Russian Federation. The taiga contains huge reserves of wood and supplies large amounts of oxygen to the atmosphere. In the north, the taiga smoothly turns into forest-tundra, gradually taiga forests are replaced by open forests, and then by separate groups of trees. The taiga forests extend farthest into the forest-tundra along river valleys, which are most protected from strong northern winds. In the south, the taiga also smoothly transitions into coniferous-deciduous and broad-leaved forests. In these areas, humans have interfered with the natural landscapes for many centuries, so now they represent a complex natural-anthropogenic complex.
Rice. 6. Taiga
Under the influence of human activity, the geographical environment is changing. Swamps are drained, deserts are irrigated, forests disappear, and so on. This changes the appearance of natural areas.
Bibliography
MainI
1. Geography. Land and people. 7th grade: Textbook for general education. uch. / A.P. Kuznetsov, L.E. Savelyeva, V.P. Dronov, series “Spheres”. – M.: Education, 2011.
2. Geography. Land and people. 7th grade: atlas, “Spheres” series.
Additional
1. N.A. Maksimov. Behind the pages of a geography textbook. – M.: Enlightenment.
1. Russian Geographical Society ().
3. Tutorial by geography ().
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Natural areas of the Earth
A comprehensive scientific study of nature allowed V.V. Dokuchaev in 1898 to formulate the law of geographical zoning, according to which climate, water, soil, relief, vegetation and fauna in a certain territory are closely interconnected and must be studied as a whole. He proposed dividing the Earth's surface into zones that are naturally repeated in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
Different geographical (natural) zones Earth are characterized by a certain combination of heat and moisture, soils, flora and fauna and, as a consequence, the characteristics of the economic activities of their population. These are zones of forests, steppes, deserts, tundra, savanna, as well as transitional zones of forest-tundra, semi-deserts, forest-tundra. Natural areas are traditionally named according to the predominant type of vegetation, reflecting the most important features of the landscape.
A regular change in vegetation is an indicator of a general increase in heat. In the tundra, the average temperature of the warmest month of the year - July - does not exceed + 10°C, in the taiga it fluctuates between + 10... + 18°C in the strip of deciduous and mixed forests + 18... + 20°C, in the steppe and forest-steppe +22...+24°С, in semi-deserts and deserts - above +30°С.
Most animal organisms remain active at temperatures from 0 to +30°C. However, temperatures from + 10°C and above are considered the best for growth and development. Obviously, such a thermal regime is typical for the equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, and temperate climatic zones of the Earth. The intensity of vegetation development in natural areas also depends on the amount of precipitation. Compare, for example, their number in the forest and desert zones (see atlas map).
So, natural areas- these are natural complexes that occupy large areas and are characterized by the dominance of one zonal type of landscape. They are formed mainly under the influence of climate - the distribution of heat and moisture, their ratio. Each natural zone has its own type of soil, vegetation and animal life.
The appearance of a natural area is determined by the type of vegetation cover. But the nature of vegetation depends on climatic conditions - thermal conditions, moisture, light, soil, etc.
As a rule, natural zones are extended in the form of wide stripes from west to east. There are no clear boundaries between them; they gradually transform into one another. The latitudinal location of natural zones is disrupted by the unequal distribution of land and ocean, relief, distance from the ocean.
General characteristics of the main natural zones of the Earth
Let us characterize the main natural zones of the Earth, starting from the equator and moving towards the poles.
There are forests on all continents of the Earth, except Antarctica. Forest areas have both common features, and special ones, characteristic only of taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests or tropical forests.
The general features of the forest zone include: warm or hot summers, a fairly large amount of precipitation (from 600 to 1000 or more mm per year), large deep rivers, and the predominance of woody vegetation. Largest quantity equatorial forests, which occupy 6% of the land, receive heat and moisture. They rightfully hold first place among the forest zones of the Earth in terms of the diversity of plants and animals. 4/5 of all plant species grow here and 1/2 of all land animal species live here.
The climate of the equatorial forests is hot and humid. Average annual temperatures are +24... + 28°C. The annual precipitation is more than 1000 mm. It is in the equatorial forest that you can find the largest number of ancient animal species, such as amphibians: frogs, newts, salamanders, toads or marsupials: possums in America, possums in Australia, tenrecs in Africa, lemurs in Madagascar, lorises in Asia; Ancient animals include such inhabitants of equatorial forests as armadillos, anteaters, and lizards.
In equatorial forests, the richest vegetation is located in several tiers. The treetops are home to many species of birds: hummingbirds, hornbills, birds of paradise, crowned pigeons, numerous species of parrots: cockatoos, macaws, Amazons, African Grays. These birds have tenacious legs and strong beaks: they not only fly, but also climb trees very well. Animals that live in treetops also have prehensile paws and tails: sloths, monkeys, howler monkeys, flying foxes, tree kangaroos. The largest animal that lives in the treetops is the gorilla. Such forests are home to many beautiful butterflies and other insects: termites, ants, etc. There are various types of snakes. Anaconda is the largest snake in the world, reaching a length of 10 m or more. The high-water rivers of the equatorial forests are rich in fish.
The largest areas of equatorial forests occupy in South America, in the Amazon River basin, and in Africa - in the Congo River basin. The Amazon is the deepest river on Earth. Every second it carries 220 thousand m3 of water into the Atlantic Ocean. The Congo is the second most water-rich river in the world. Equatorial forests are also common on the islands of the Malaysian archipelago and Oceania, in the southeastern regions of Asia, and in northeastern Australia (see map in the atlas).
Valuable tree species: mahogany, black, yellow - the wealth of equatorial forests. Harvesting valuable timber threatens the conservation of the Earth's unique forests. Satellite images have shown that in a number of areas of the Amazon, forest destruction is proceeding at a catastrophic pace, many times faster than their restoration. At the same time, many species are disappearing unique plants and animals.
Variably wet monsoon forests
Variably humid monsoon forests can also be found on all continents of the Earth except Antarctica. If in the equatorial forests it is summer all the time, then three seasons are clearly defined here: dry cool (November-February) - winter monsoon; dry hot (March-May) - transitional season; humid hot (June-October) - summer monsoon. The hottest month is May, when the sun is almost at its zenith, rivers dry up, trees shed their leaves, and the grass turns yellow.
The summer monsoon arrives at the end of May with hurricane winds, thunderstorms, and torrential rains. Nature comes to life. Due to the alternation of dry and wet seasons, monsoon forests are called variable-wet.
Monsoon forests India is located in the tropical climatic zone. Valuable tree species grow here, characterized by the strength and durability of the wood: teak, sal, sandalwood, satin and ironwood. Teak wood is not afraid of fire and water, it is widely used for the construction of ships. Sal also has a durable and durable wood. Sandalwood and satin trees are used in the manufacture of varnishes and paints.
The fauna of the Indian jungle is rich and diverse: elephants, bulls, rhinoceroses, monkeys. Lots of birds and reptiles.
Monsoon forests of tropical and subtropical regions are also characteristic of South-East Asia, Central and South America, northern and northeastern regions of Australia (see map in the atlas).
Temperate monsoon forests
Temperate monsoon forests are found only in Eurasia. The Ussuri taiga is a special place in the Far East. This is a real thicket: multi-tiered, dense forests, intertwined with vines and wild grapes. Cedar, walnut, linden, ash, and oak grow here. The lush vegetation is the result of abundant seasonal rainfall and a fairly mild climate. Here you can meet Ussuri tiger- the largest representative of its species.
The rivers of the monsoon forests are fed by rain and overflow during the summer monsoon rains. The largest of them are the Ganges, Indus, and Amur.
Monsoon forests have been heavily cut down. According to experts, in Eurasia only 5% of the former remains forest areas. Monsoon forests have suffered not only from forestry, but also from agriculture. It is known that the largest agricultural civilizations appeared on fertile soils in the valleys of the Ganges, Irrawaddy, Indus rivers and their tributaries. The development of agriculture required new territories - forests were cut down. Agriculture has adapted for centuries to alternating wet and dry seasons. The main agricultural season is the wet monsoon period. The most important crops are planted here - rice, jute, sugar cane. In the dry, cool season, barley, legumes, and potatoes are planted. During the dry hot season, farming is possible only with artificial irrigation. The monsoon is capricious, its delay leads to severe droughts and destruction of crops. Therefore, artificial irrigation is necessary.
Temperate forests
Temperate forests occupy significant areas in Eurasia and North America (see map in the atlas).
In the northern regions it is taiga, to the south - mixed and deciduous forests. In the forest zone of the temperate zone, the seasons of the year are clearly defined. Average temperatures in January are negative throughout, in some places down to - 40°C, in July + 10... + 20°C; the amount of precipitation is 300-1000 mm per year. The vegetation of plants stops in winter, and there is snow cover for several months.
Spruce, fir, pine, and larch grow both in the taiga of North America and in the taiga of Eurasia. The animal world also has a lot in common. The bear is the owner of the taiga. True, in the Siberian taiga it is called a brown bear, and in the Canadian taiga it is called a grizzly bear. You can meet red lynx, elk, wolf, as well as marten, ermine, wolverine, and sable. Flow through the taiga zone largest rivers Siberia - Ob, Irtysh, Yenisei, Lena, which in terms of flow are second only to the rivers of the equatorial forest zone.
To the south, the climate becomes milder: mixed and broad-leaved forests grow here, consisting of species such as birch, oak, maple, linden, among which there are also conifers. Characteristic of the forests of North America are: white oak, sugar maple, yellow birch. Noble deer, elk, wild boar, hare; Among the predators, the wolf and the fox are representatives of the animal world of this zone known to us.
If the northern taiga is considered by geographers to be a zone slightly modified by humans, then mixed and broad-leaved forests have been cut down almost everywhere. Their place was taken by agricultural areas, for example, the “corn belt” in the United States; many cities and transport routes are concentrated in this zone. In Europe and North America, the natural landscapes of these forests have been preserved only in mountainous areas.
Savannah
Savannah is a natural zone of low latitudes in the subequatorial, tropical and subtropical zones of the Northern and Southern hemispheres. Occupies about 40% of the territory of Africa (sub-Saharan Africa), distributed in South and Central America, Southeast Asia, Australia (see map in the atlas). The savanna is dominated by herbaceous vegetation with isolated trees or groups of trees (acacia, eucalyptus, baobab) and bushes.
The fauna of African savannas is surprisingly diverse. To adapt to the conditions of endless dry spaces, nature endowed animals with unique properties. For example, the giraffe is considered the tallest animal on Earth. Its height exceeds 5 m, it has a long tongue (about 50 cm). The giraffe needs all this in order to reach the high branches of the acacia trees. The crowns of acacias begin at a height of 5 m, and giraffes have practically no competitors, calmly eating tree branches. Typical savannah animals are zebras, elephants, and ostriches.
Steppes
Steppes are found on all continents of the Earth, except Antarctica (in the temperate and subtropical zones of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres). They are characterized by an abundance of solar heat, low precipitation (up to 400 mm per year), and warm or hot summers. The main vegetation of the steppes is grass. Steppes are called differently. In South America, the tropical steppes are called pampa, which in the Indian language means “a large area without forest.” Animals characteristic of the pampa are the llama, the armadillo, and the viscacha, a rodent similar to a rabbit.
In North America, steppes are called prairies. They are located in both temperate and subtropical climate zones. The bison have long been the “kings” of the American prairies. By the end of the 19th century they were almost completely exterminated. Currently, through the efforts of the state and the public, the number of bison is being restored. Another resident of the prairies is the coyote - the steppe wolf. Along the banks of rivers in bushes you can find spotted big cat- jaguar. Peccaries are a small boar-like animal also typical of the prairies.
The steppes of Eurasia are located in the temperate zone. They are very different from the American prairies and African savannas. It has a drier, sharply continental climate. In winter it is very cold (average temperature - 20°C), and in summer it is very hot (average temperature + 25°C), with strong winds. In summer, the vegetation of the steppes is sparse, but in spring the steppe is transformed: it blooms with many varieties of lilies, poppies, and tulips.
The flowering time does not last long, about 10 days. Then drought sets in, the steppe dries out, the colors fade, and by autumn everything turns yellow-gray.
The steppes contain the most fertile soils on Earth, so they are almost completely plowed. The treeless spaces of the temperate steppes are characterized by strong winds. Wind soil erosion occurs here very intensively - frequent dust storms. To preserve soil fertility, forest belts are planted, organic fertilizers and light agricultural machinery are used.
Deserts
Deserts occupy vast areas - up to 10% of the Earth's land area. They are located on all continents and in different climatic zones: temperate, subtropical, tropical and even polar.
The desert climates of the tropical and temperate zones have common features. Firstly, an abundance of solar heat, secondly, a large amplitude of temperatures between winter and summer, day and night, and thirdly, a small amount of precipitation (up to 150 mm per year). However, the latter feature is also characteristic of polar deserts.
In the deserts of the tropical zone, the average summer temperature is +30°C, winter + 10°C. The greatest tropical deserts on Earth are located in Africa: the Sahara, Kalahari, Namib.
Plants and animals of deserts adapt to dry and hot climates. For example, a giant cactus can store up to 3000 liters of water and “not drink” for up to two years; and the Welwitschia plant, found in the Namib Desert, is capable of absorbing water from the air. The camel is an indispensable helper for humans in the desert. It can be without food and water for a long time, storing it in its humps.
The largest desert in Asia, the Rub al-Khali, located on the Arabian Peninsula, is also in tropical zone. The desert regions of North and South America and Australia are located in the tropical and subtropical climate zones.
The temperate deserts of Eurasia are also characterized by low precipitation and a large temperature range, both annual and daily. However, they are characterized by lower winter temperatures and a pronounced flowering period in the spring. Such deserts are located in Central Asia east of the Caspian Sea. The fauna is represented here various types snakes, rodents, scorpions, turtles, lizards. A typical plant is saxaul.
Polar deserts
Polar deserts are located in the polar regions of the Earth. The absolute minimum temperature recorded in Antarctica is 89.2 °C.
On average, winter temperatures are -30 °C, summer temperatures are 0 °C. Just like in the deserts of the tropical and temperate zones, the polar desert receives little precipitation, mainly in the form of snow. The polar night lasts almost half a year here, and the polar day lasts almost half a year. Antarctica is considered the highest continent on Earth, given the thickness of its ice shell at 4 km.
The indigenous inhabitants of the polar deserts of Antarctica are emperor penguins. They cannot fly, but they swim perfectly. They can dive to great depths and swim vast distances to escape their enemies - seals.
The northern polar region of the Earth - the Arctic - got its name from the ancient Greek arcticos - northern. The southern, as if opposite, polar region is Antarctica (anti - against). The Arctic occupies the island of Greenland, the islands of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, as well as the islands and waters of the Arctic Ocean. This area is covered with snow and ice all year round. The polar bear is rightfully considered the owner of these places.
Tundra
Tundra is a treeless natural area with vegetation of mosses, lichens and creeping shrubs. The tundra is distributed in the subarctic climate zone only in North America and Eurasia, which are characterized by harsh climatic conditions (little solar heat, low temperatures, short cold summers, low precipitation).
The moss lichen was called “reindeer moss” because it is the main food of reindeer. Arctic foxes and lemmings - small rodents - also live in the tundra. Among the sparse vegetation there are berry bushes: blueberries, lingonberries, blueberries, as well as dwarf trees: birch, willow.
Permafrost in the soil is a phenomenon characteristic of the tundra, as well as the Siberian taiga. As soon as you start digging a hole, at a depth of about 1 m you will encounter a frozen layer of earth several tens of meters thick. This phenomenon must be taken into account during construction, industrial and agricultural development of the territory.
Everything grows very slowly in the tundra. This is precisely why the need for careful attention to its nature is connected. For example, pastures overrun by deer are restored only after 15-20 years.
Altitudinal zone
Unlike flat areas, climatic zones and natural zones in the mountains change according to the law of vertical zonation, i.e. from bottom to top. This is due to the fact that the air temperature decreases with altitude. Consider, as an example, the greatest mountain system in the world - the Himalayas. Almost all natural zones of the Earth are represented here: tropical forest grows at the foot, at an altitude of 1500 m it is replaced by broad-leaved forests, which in turn turn into mixed forests at an altitude of 2000 m. Further, as you climb the mountains, coniferous forests of Himalayan pine begin to predominate, fir and juniper. In winter, there is snow here for a long time and frosts persist.
Above 3500 m, shrubs and alpine meadows begin; they are called “alpine”. In summer, the meadows are covered with a carpet of brightly blooming herbs - poppies, primroses, gentians. Gradually the grasses become shorter. From approximately 4500 m altitude there is eternal snow and ice. The climatic conditions here are very harsh. Rare species of animals live in the mountains: Mountain goat, chamois, argali, snow leopard.
Latitudinal zonation in the ocean
The world's oceans occupy more than 2/3 of the planet's surface. Physical properties and chemical composition Ocean waters are relatively constant and create an environment favorable for life. It is especially important for the life of plants and animals that oxygen and carbon dioxide coming from the air dissolve in water. Photosynthesis of algae occurs mainly in the upper layer of water (up to 100 m).
Marine organisms live mainly in the surface layer of water illuminated by the Sun. These are the smallest plant and animal organisms - plankton (bacteria, algae, small animals), various fish and marine mammals(dolphins, whales, seals, etc.), squid, sea snakes and turtles.
There is life on the seabed too. These are bottom algae, corals, crustaceans, and mollusks. They are called benthos (from the Greek benthos - deep). The biomass of the World Ocean is 1000 times less than the biomass of the Earth's land.
Distribution of life in world ocean unevenly and depends on the amount of solar energy received on its surface. Polar waters are poor in plankton due to low temperatures and the long polar night. The largest amount of plankton develops in the waters of the temperate zone in summer. The abundance of plankton attracts fish here. The temperate zones of the Earth are the most fishy areas of the World Ocean. In the tropical zone, the amount of plankton decreases again due to the high salinity of the water and high temperatures.
Formation of natural areas
From today's topic, we learned how diverse the natural complexes of our planet are. The natural zones of the Earth are replete with evergreen forests, endless steppes, various mountain ranges, hot and icy deserts.
Each corner of our planet is distinguished by its uniqueness, varied climate, relief, flora and fauna, and therefore different natural zones are formed on the territories of each continent.
Let's try to figure out what natural areas are, how they were formed, and what was the impetus for their formation.
Natural zones include those complexes that have similar soils, vegetation, fauna and similarities temperature regime. Natural zones received their names based on the type of vegetation, and are called such as taiga zone or deciduous forests, etc.
Natural areas are diverse due to the uneven redistribution of solar energy on the Earth's surface. This is where it lies main reason heterogeneity of the geographical envelope.
After all, if we consider one of the climatic zones, we will notice that those parts of the belt that are located closer to the ocean are more humidified than its continental parts. And this reason lies not so much in the amount of precipitation, but rather in the ratio of heat and moisture. Because of this, on some continents we experience a more humid climate, while on others we experience a drier climate.
And with the help of the redistribution of solar heat, we see how the same amount of moisture in some climate zones leads to excess moisture, and in others to a lack of moisture.
For example, in a hot tropical zone, a lack of moisture can cause drought and the formation of desert areas, while in the subtropics, excess moisture contributes to the formation of swamps.
So you learned that due to the difference in the amount of solar heat and moisture, different natural zones were formed.
Patterns of natural zones location
Natural zones of the Earth have clear patterns of their location, extending in the latitudinal direction and changing from north to south. Most often, a change in natural zones is observed in the direction from the coast making its way inland.
In mountainous areas there is an altitudinal zone, which changes from one zone to another, starting from the foot and moving towards the mountain peaks.
In the World Ocean, zones change from the equator to the poles. Here, changes in natural areas are reflected in the surface composition of waters, as well as differences in vegetation and fauna.
Features of the natural zones of the continents
Since planet Earth has a spherical surface, the Sun heats it unevenly. Those areas of the surface above which the Sun is high receive the most heat. And where Sun rays only glide over the Earth - a more severe climate prevails.
And although on different continents the vegetation and animals have similar features, they are influenced by climate, topography, geology and people. Therefore, historically, due to changes in relief and climate, different species of plants and animals live on different continents.
There are continents where endemics are found, where only a certain type of living beings and plants live, which are peculiar to these continents. For example, polar bears can only be found in nature in the Arctic, and kangaroos can only be found in Australia. But in African and South American shrouds there are similar species, although they have certain differences.
But human activity contributes to changes that occur in the geographical environment, and under such influence natural areas also change.
Questions and tasks to prepare for the exam
1. Draw up a diagram of the interaction of natural components in a natural complex and explain it.
2. How do the concepts “natural complex”, “geographical envelope”, “biosphere”, “natural zone” relate to each other? Show with a diagram.
3. Name the zonal type of soil for tundra, taiga, mixed and deciduous forest zones.
4. Where is the soil cover more difficult to restore: in the steppes of Southern Russia or in the tundra? Why?
5. What is the reason for the difference in the thickness of the fertile soil layer in different natural zones? What does soil fertility depend on?
6. What types of plants and animals are characteristic of the tundra and why?
7. What organisms live on the surface of the waters of the World Ocean?
8. Which of the following animals can be found in the African savanna: rhinoceros, lion, giraffe, tiger, tapir, baboon, llama, hedgehog, zebra, hyena?
9. In what forests is it impossible to determine its age from the cut of a cut tree?
10. What measures, in your opinion, will help preserve the human habitat?
Maksakovsky V.P., Petrova N.N., Physical and economic geography of the world. - M.: Iris-press, 2010. - 368 pp.: ill.
